Key Terms
Define garum
thick, salty fish sauce.
What region is Pompeii and Herculaneum apart of?
Campania Region, 200km south of Rome.
Name two occupations of Pompeii and Herculaneum.
What was found in the Herculaneum boat sheds?
Around 300 human skeletons, a well preserved wooden boat, and personal valuables like gold and silver coins.
What does HCP stand for?
The Herculaneum Conservation Project (2001).
What is paterfamilias.
Highest ranking male in a family. Roman household patriarchal.
How did Mount Vesuvius contribute to Pompeii's agriculture?
It provided fertile mineral-rich soil. The crop yield of Campania was six times higher than the average of the Italian peninsula.
(evidence - wall painting from the House of the Centenary in Pompeii of Mt Vesuvius and Bacchus, Roman god of agriculture and wine).
How did the Pompeii Forum contribute to the economy? Name 2 specific buildings.
The Pompeii Forum served as the central economic heart of the city by hosting open-air markets, banking and legal transactions, and trade guilds. Two key buildings are the Macellum (marketplace) and Building of Eumachia (textile industry).
Others include; the Basilica (law court and business exchange), or, while not a building, the Mensa Ponderaria (market measure and standaradised trade capacity).
It reveals aspects of Roman urban economics, leisure activities and social roles such as female property management.
What is Dr Estelle Lazer known for?
An archaeologist and physical anthropologist. Scientifically studied human remains, approximately 300 skulls. In 2016, a team led by Lazer used 3d scanning techniques to investigate the skeletal remains within the plaster casts. Concluded that people were generally well nourished with significant teeth decays from stone ground flour.
What is an impluvium?
The shallow pool which collected rain water unde the compluvium. A shallow, sunken pool in the centre of the Roman atrium (an open air house).
In what year did Mt Vesuvius erupt, and how many major pyroclastic surges were there? How did Pliny the Younger describe the explosion? (*hint: it is now defined as the Plinian eruption in modern volcanology)
in 79AD, 6 major surges. He described it as a umbrella pine tree explosion.
Outline the social structure of Pompeii and Herculaneum.
The society of Pompeii and Herculaneum was organised in a hierarchy based on wealth, status, and freedom. At the top were wealthy elites who held political power, followed by freedmen and freedwomen, ordinary citizens such as merchants and craftspeople, and slaves at the bottom. Men generally had more rights than women, while wealth and social status greatly influenced a person's opportunities and lifestyle.
Why is the House of the Vettii significant?
Vettii brothers - two ex slaves. Encompasses an elaborate peristyle (a key indicator of wealth and status). Also evidence for how freedmen were able to accumulate wealth and display it in housing. Demonstrates social mobility. Paintings showing wine making (evidence of occupations). Encompasses a lararium (household shrine). Putti frescoe - common features of Renaissance interior decoration.
- Spot the Dog (Pompeii 2022): 360 vision robot that has been stationed to collect data on structural and safety issues
- ELIO Scanning (Herculaneum 2017): a portable macro X-ray fluroescene instrument that can peel back layers of dirt and ash on wall paintings. Non-invasively map elements in the paint and then choose appropriate cleaning solvents. (e.g. wall painting from the House of the Mosaic Atrium, H).
- Reconstructing the Past: Artificial Intelligence and Robotics (a.k.a RePAIR): being used to piece together fragments of mosaics
- Vesuvian Challenge (competition designed to accelerate discoveries): an international machine learning and computer vision competition created to read carbonised Herculaneum papyrus scrolls. Winners read 2000 letters after creating a CT SCAN of the scroll.
- Digitisation Projects - The Open University (2024): virtual tours of the site to ease tourism impacts.
What is a triclinium and why is it important?
Formal dining room in private homes containing three seating areas. It was a high-status social networking hub that provided an opportunity to display wealth.
Outline how the impacts of the eruption were different for both Pompeii and Herculaneum.
The AD 79 eruption of Mount Vesuvius impacted Pompeii and Herculaneum differently due to distance, burial material, and temperature, leading to contrasting physical destruction and archaeological preservation. Pompeii was buried under (4 to 6) meters of falling pumice and ash, while Herculaneum was hit by ultra-hot pyroclastic surges and buried under 20 to 23 metres of solid materials.
How do we know about local political life in Pompeii and Herculaneum? Name two out of the four political institutions.
We know about local political life through evidence such as election posters painted on walls, public inscriptions, and government buildings. This evidence shows that local elections were held, wealthy citizens could hold public office, and people were encouraged to support political candidates.
The Duumvirs (senior magistrates), Aediles (junior magistrates), the Ordo Decururionum (town council), the Comitium (citizen assembly).
Why is the House of Faun significant?
It exists as the largest, most luxurious aristocratic residence. Features two atria (plural of atriums) and two peristyle gardens. Also evidence of Greek/Hellenistic influence. Mosaic of Alexander the great in the Battle of Issus. Showcases mosaic craftsmenship. Well preserved intricate floor mosaics. Excellent evidence of housing - demonstrates how they would use decoration and architecture to impress visitors.
Who established the HCP and what was their aim?
David Packard, a philanthropist and president of the Packard Humanities Institute established the HCP in 2001.
Aim was to support the local heritage authority in the conservation of the site. Pressing problems such as:
- deterioration of plaster and wall paintings
- water damage
- animal damage, for example, pigeon droppings and birds
- weed infestation
(e.g. repairing a mosaic in the House of Neptune and Amphitrite)
What is thermopolia and what information does it provide modern audiences?
A shop that produces and serves hot food and drinks. It provides insight into urban diet and economy, daily life and social habits.
How did the nature of excavations at Pompeii and Herculaneum change over time? and, who developed the method of plaster casts?
At first, excavations focused on finding valuable treasures like statues and jewellery. Later, archaeologists used careful scientific methods to record buildings, objects, and human remains so they could better understand what life was like in the ancient Roman cities. Giuseppe Fiorelli developed the plaster casts in the 19th century.
What are three key features of Pompeii and Herculaneum's religion?
Lararium - the household shrine located in the main room of the house.
Lares and Penates (food gods) - Protective spirits of the family. "Household deities".
Public Temples - large buildings (Jupiter, Isis, Apollo).
Snake and Altar - fertility to the family.
Polytheistic religion. Venus - patron goddess of Pompeii. Hercules - mythical founder of Herculaneum. Imperial cults (emperors).
Capitoline Triad - Juno, Jupiter and Minerva.
What is the College of Augustales?
Located in Insula VI in Herculaneum. Believed to be a dedication by two brothers to Augustus (Roman emperor). Likely to also be a meeting place for the town council, the local Curia or Senate House. The interior is richly decorated with fourth style mythological frescoes depicting scenes from the life of Hercules - thus, Greek influence.
Explain the ethical issues facing archaeologists who study Pompeii and Herculaneum.
Archaeologists studying Pompeii and Herculaneum face several ethical issues, particularly regarding the treatment and display of human remains. Many victims were preserved where they died, and plaster casts made from their bodies provide valuable evidence about life and death during the eruption of Mount Vesuvius. However, displaying these remains raises questions about respect, dignity, and whether the dead are being treated as scientific evidence or tourist attractions. Archaeologists must balance public education and research with sensitivity towards the individuals who died. Other ethical issues include preserving fragile sites from damage caused by tourism, avoiding unnecessary excavation that may destroy evidence, and ensuring artefacts remain protected rather than being removed or sold illegally.