Seeds of Reform
The sale of these documents, which promised a reduction in punishment for sin, became one of the most criticized Church practices.
Indulgences
In 1517, Martin Luther publicized this list criticizing the sale of indulgences.
95 Theses
This reformer taught predestination and transformed Geneva into a center of Protestantism.
John Calvin
Ignatius of Loyola founded this Catholic religious order known for education and missionary activity.
Jesuits
This 1555 settlement allowed each prince in the Holy Roman Empire to choose Catholicism or Lutheranism for his territory.
Peace of Augsburg
This English reformer translated the Bible into English, criticized Church wealth, and rejected papal authority.
John Wyclif
Luther taught that people received salvation through this, rather than through good works or purchased indulgences.
Faith alone, or justification by faith
This Protestant group supported adult baptism and the separation of church and state.
The Anabaptists
This meeting clarified Catholic teachings, improved clerical discipline, and rejected major Protestant doctrines.
Council of Trent
The throwing of imperial officials from a castle window in 1618 helped begin this major European conflict.
30 Years War
This Bohemian reformer was condemned and burned at the Council of Constance in 1415.
At this 1521 imperial assembly, Luther refused to take back his teachings before Emperor Charles V.
Diet of Worms
What disagreement prevented Luther and Ulrich Zwingli from uniting their reform movements?
Luther believed Christ was truly present in the Lord’s Supper, while Zwingli viewed it as a symbolic memorial.
Accusations of this crime peaked between 1580 and 1650, reflecting folk beliefs, gender prejudice, and social upheaval.
Witchcraft
This 1598 decree issued by Henry IV granted limited religious toleration to French Huguenots.
Edict of Nantes
This Christian humanist criticized Church corruption while calling for simpler, more sincere Christianity.
Desiderius Erasmus
Why did Luther’s translation of the Bible into German help the Reformation spread?
It allowed ordinary people to read Scripture in their own language, while the printing press made copies widely available.
This English queen restored Protestant rule, brought greater religious stability, and defeated the Spanish Armada.
Elizabeth I
How did Mannerist art differ from Baroque art?
Mannerism used elongated, distorted, and unsettling forms. Baroque art emphasized dramatic movement, emotion, illusion, and contrasts of light and shadow.
Why did Catholic France support Protestant Sweden during the Thirty Years’ War?
France wanted to weaken the rival Habsburg dynasty. Political interests and the balance of power had become more important than religious unity.
Identify two conditions that helped the Reformation gain an early foothold in the Holy Roman Empire.
Any two: political decentralization, protection from German princes, resentment of taxes sent to Rome, Church corruption, Christian humanism, or the printing press.
How did Luther’s response to the German Peasants’ War strengthen the Reformation politically while limiting its social radicalism?
Luther condemned the rebellion and supported the princes. This helped him retain the protection of German rulers, but he rejected the peasants’ use of reform ideas to challenge the social order.
Why was Henry VIII’s break with Rome different from the reform movements of Luther and Calvin?
Henry’s break was primarily political and dynastic because he wanted an annulment and a male heir. Luther and Calvin began with theological challenges to Catholic teachings and practices.
How did the Catholic Reformation both revive the Catholic Church and make Europe’s religious division more permanent?
Jesuit education, improved discipline, and reforms strengthened Catholicism, but the Council of Trent reaffirmed doctrines rejected by Protestants, hardening the division between the churches.
Explain one major political and one major religious result of the Peace of Westphalia.
Politically, it strengthened the sovereignty of the German states and weakened the Holy Roman Empire. Religiously, it expanded legal recognition to Calvinism alongside Catholicism and Lutheranism.