Chemistry
This type of bond forms when electrons are shared between atoms.
What is a covalent bond?
This organelle produces ATP.
What is the mitochondria?
This tissue consists of a single thin layer of flat cells specialized for rapid diffusion.
What is simple squamous epithelium?
Explain why potassium tends to leave the neuron during repolarization.
What is:
the electrical gradient (inside of cell has relatively upfront charge pushing potassium out) and the chemical gradient (high potassium inside cell to low potassium outside cell) drives potassium outward once potassium channels open?
Explain why calcium is required for skeletal muscle contraction.
What is:
calcium binds troponin and exposes actin active sites for cross-bridge formation?
A solution with a pH below 7 is considered this.
What is acidic?
This transport process moves water across a membrane.
What is osmosis?
This tissue contains cilia, goblet cells, and nuclei appearing at different heights.
What is pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium?
Compare Schwann cells and oligodendrocytes.
What is:
Schwann cells myelinate axons in the PNS while oligodendrocytes myelinate axons in the CNS?
Compare hypertrophy and atrophy.
hypertrophy increases number of myofibrils while atrophy decreases muscle fiber size by decreasing number of myofibrils?
Explain why water molecules stick together.
What is:
water molecules are polar, causing partially positive hydrogen atoms to be attracted to partially negative oxygen atoms of nearby water molecules through hydrogen bonds?
During translation, this type of RNA carries amino acids to the ribosome.
What is tRNA?
This tissue is striated, multinucleated, voluntary, and attached to bones
What is skeletal muscle tissue?
Explain how myelination increases conduction speed.
What is:
action potentials jump node-to-node through saltatory conduction?
Explain why repeated stimulation can lead to wave summation.
What is:
the muscle does not fully relax and calcium remains available for additional tension production?
Explain why increasing substrate concentration increases enzyme activity only up to a certain point.
What is:
eventually all enzyme active sites become occupied/saturated?
A DNA template strand reads:
TAC GGA CTT AAA
Determine:
What is:
Coding strand:
ATG CCT GAA TTT
mRNA strand:
AUG CCU GAA UUU
This connective tissue contains fibroblasts, collagen fibers, elastic fibers, and abundant ground substance and is commonly found beneath epithelia.
What is areolar connective tissue?
Trace the flow of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) beginning with its production and ending with its return to the bloodstream.
What is:
choroid plexus → lateral ventricles → interventricular foramina → third ventricle → cerebral aqueduct → fourth ventricle → median/lateral apertures → subarachnoid space → arachnoid granulations → dural venous sinuses
A sprinter and marathon runner have different muscle fiber compositions. Predict which athlete has more fast glycolytic fibers and explain why.
What is:
the sprinter because fast glycolytic fibers generate rapid powerful contractions anaerobically?
A glucose molecule undergoes glycolysis during intense exercise with limited oxygen availability. Trace the major pathway of glucose through glycolysis and explain:
What is:
glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm; glucose is phosphorylated and broken into pyruvate; 2 ATP are invested and 4 ATP produced for a net gain of 2 ATP; NAD+ is reduced to NADH; limited oxygen causes pyruvate to convert to lactic acid; anaerobic metabolism produces less ATP than aerobic respiration.
Trace the complete pathway of a secreted protein beginning with DNA in the nucleus and ending with exocytosis from the plasma membrane.
What is:
DNA → mRNA → nuclear pore → ribosome on rough ER → translation → rough ER lumen → transport vesicle → Golgi apparatus → secretory vesicle → plasma membrane → exocytosis
A tissue sample shows parallel collagen fibers with fibroblasts aligned between the fibers. Explain how this structure relates to its function and identify the tissue.
What is dense regular connective tissue?
The parallel collagen arrangement allows the tissue to resist pulling forces in one direction, making it ideal for tendons and ligaments.
Trace BOTH the somatosensory and visual pathways involved in touching and seeing a hot stove. Then explain where the pathways converge for integration of information.
What is:
Somatosensory pathway:
sensory receptor → sensory neuron → spinal cord → thalamus → primary somatosensory cortex → somatosensory association area
Visual pathway:
retina/photoreceptors → optic nerve → brainstem/thalamus → visual cortex → visual association area → somatosensory association area
Convergence:
the pathways converge in the somatosensory association area for integration of sensory information.
Trace the complete pathway of skeletal muscle contraction beginning with the motor neuron action potential and ending with muscle relaxation.
action potential reaches synaptic terminal → acetylcholine released → binds motor end plate receptors → muscle action potential generated → travels along sarcolemma and T-tubules → sarcoplasmic reticulum releases calcium → calcium binds troponin → tropomyosin shifts → cross-bridge formation/power strokes occur → ATP binds myosin for detachment → acetylcholinesterase breaks down ACh → calcium re-sequestered into SR → relaxation occurs