Upper Bodily Systems
(Nervous, Respiratory, Circulatory, Immune)
(Nervous, Respiratory, Circulatory, Immune)
What's the difference between parasites and fungi (relative to their hosts)?
Parasites-Lives on or inside a host and gets food at the expense of the host
Fungi-Lives on and consumes host
Name the four major excretory organs in humans.
Kidneys
Lungs
Skin
Liver
State the difference between tendons and ligaments.
Tendons-bone to muscle
Ligaments-bone to bone
What is the monomer of lipids?
Fatty acids and glycerol.
What molecule is the final electron receptor in chemiosmosis?
Oxygen
Name 2 differences between the upper and lower chambers of the heart.
Upper chambers receive blood and have thinner muscle walls, lower chambers discharge blood and have thicker muscle walls
Describe negative feedback using ONE example from the endocrine system (thyroid, blood glucose, or cortisol).
After a meal, blood glucose rises. The pancreas releases insulin, which signals body cells to take in glucose and store it as glycogen in the liver and muscles. As blood glucose returns to normal, insulin secretion decreases, restoring homeostasis.
Define and give an example of analogous structures.
Same function; different structure. Evidence of convergent evolution, which is no recent shared ancestor, but shared environment. Example- bird and butterfly wing.
Name 2 differences and 2 similarities between prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
Prokaryotes
Contain DNA floating in cytoplasm
No true organelles
Only unicellular organisms
May have a cell wall (more rectangular)
Eukaryotes
Contain DNA in a nucleus
Have true membrane-bound organelles
Can be unicellular or multicellular organisms
May have a cell wall
Explain base-pairing rules and how they allow for correct DNA replication.
Adenine (A) pairs with thymine (T), and cytosine (C) pairs with guanine (G). During replication, each original strand serves as a template for a new complementary strand.
Explain agglutination. Make sure to include where, when, and how this happens.
Agglutination
Your antibodies attack antigens on other RBC, creating a “traffic block” in blood vessels
Happens during a transfusion
ANTIBODIES attack ANTIGENS
RECIPIENT attacks DONOR
A person drinks a large glass of water. Explain how the excretory system helps maintain homeostasis after.
After drinking a large glass of water, blood becomes more dilute. The kidneys detect this change and reduce water reabsorption by lowering ADH (antidiuretic hormone) levels. As a result, the kidneys produce more dilute urine, removing excess water and restoring normal blood concentration and osmotic balance.
Name TWO types of organ tissue found in the trachea → be AS SPECIFIC as possible. (generic answers will not get points)
1.Cartilage
2. Ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium
What is the covalent bond that joins two monosaccharides together?
Glycosidic Linkage
A DNA molecule is being copied during the S phase of the cell cycle. Describe the roles of enzymes in replication, and name them.
DNA replication enzymes: helicase unwinds and “unzips” the DNA strands, DNA polymerase builds new complementary strands by adding nucleotides, and DNA ligase seals gaps between fragments (Okazaki fragments) to form a continuous strand. Primase also helps by laying RNA primers to start replication.
Explain substrate level phosphorylation. Include what happens and name any enzymes that catalyze this.
ATP is formed when an enzyme transfers a phosphate group from a substrate to ADP
Many enzymes can do this, they are called “kinases”
A person eats a cheeseburger with carbs, proteins, and fats. Describe where digestion of each nutrient occurs and name at least one enzyme or substance involved.
Carbohydrates: begin in the mouth (salivary amylase) and finish in the small intestine (pancreatic amylase), breaking them into glucose.
Proteins: start in the stomach (pepsin + HCl) and continue in the small intestine (trypsin and other proteases), breaking them into amino acids.
Fats: mostly digested in the small intestine using bile (emulsifies fats, from liver/gallbladder) and lipase (from pancreas), breaking fats into fatty acids and glycerol. yippee!
Define directional selection (200 pts) and give an example (200 pts).
Directional selection- When one extreme of the phenotype favored over the other
Example-antibiotic resistance of bacteria.
Name the structures of mitochondria and chloroplasts and explain why they are so similar.
Mitochondria - outer membrane, inner membrane, matrix
Chloroplasts - thylakoid, granum, stroma
Similarity - endosymbiotic theory
Compare aerobic and anaerobic respiration. Include oxygen requirements, ATP production, and end products in your answer.
Aerobic vs. anaerobic respiration - aerobic respiration requires oxygen and produces a high yield of ATP (about 36–38) with end products of carbon dioxide and water. Anaerobic respiration does not require oxygen, produces much less ATP (about 2), and results in lactic acid in animals or ethanol and carbon dioxide in yeast.
Explain hemoglobin's molecular structure, making sure to include cooperative binding in your answer.
Hemoglobin
Protein– quaternary structure
Transports O2 (4 molecules each)
Has 4 iron atoms
In RBC
Cooperative binding → once first oxygen molecule binds, easier for next 3 to bind
Opposite happens as oxygen molecules are released
A mature egg is released from an ovary but is not yet fertilized. Explain what happens along the menstruation cycle. Discuss LH, estrogen, progesterone, corpus luteum, and the endometrium.
After ovulation, the empty follicle becomes the corpus luteum, which releases progesterone (and some estrogen) to maintain the endometrium (uterine lining). If no fertilization occurs, the corpus luteum breaks down, causing progesterone and estrogen levels to drop. This drop triggers the endometrium to shed, resulting in menstruation. LH initially triggers ovulation but decreases afterward when no pregnancy is established, stopping support of the corpus luteum.
Name three postzygotic mechanisms that inhibit the survival of a species. Be specific.
Reduced Hybrid Viability (hybrid zygotes die before birth), Reduced Hybrid Fertility (offspring is viable but sterile), Hybrid Breakdown (offspring is viable and can reproduce, but their offspring are feeble or sterile)
Name as many organelles and their functions as you can in 25 seconds- each correct answer earns you 100 points (do not use mitochondria or chloroplast- OR NUCLEUS you're smarter than that I believe).
INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO:
Cytosol: stuff in between organelles
Cytoplasm: everything but nucleus
Cell membrane: boundary between cells and the environment
Nucleus: stores genetic information, surrounded by a membrane, nucleolus, only in eukaryotes
Cytoskeleton: provides shape and structure to cell
Endoplasmic Reticulum: highway of cell—only eukaryotes
Smooth ER: makes lipids; no ribosomes
Rough ER: makes proteins; yes ribosomes
Ribosomes: site of protein synthesis; either attached to RER or floating in the cytosol
Golgi Apparatus: only eukaryotes, the "UPS", stores, modifies, and packages proteins
Lysosomes: waste management system; contains digestive enzymes; only animal eukaryotes
Vacuole: storage! Main one in plants for water, little ones in animals; mainly eukaryotes
Mitochondria: evolved from prokaryotes, site of cellular respiration
Chloroplast: site of photosynthesis; found in all plants and some prokaryotes
Chlorophyll: the thing in chloroplasts that give them a green color
Cell wall: made of cellulose and the rigid exterior of some plant, fungi, and prokaryotic cells
A mature egg is released from an ovary but is not yet fertilized. Explain what happens along the menstruation cycle. Discuss LH, estrogen, progesterone, corpus luteum, and the endometrium.
After ovulation, the empty follicle becomes the corpus luteum, which releases progesterone (and some estrogen) to maintain the endometrium (uterine lining). If no fertilization occurs, the corpus luteum breaks down, causing progesterone and estrogen levels to drop. This drop triggers the endometrium to shed, resulting in menstruation. LH initially triggers ovulation but decreases afterward when no pregnancy is established, stopping support of the corpus luteum.