MICROBES
Unlike eukaryotes, these single-celled organisms lack a membrane-bound nucleus.
Prokaryotes (Bacteria / Archaea)
Enzymes that act as molecular scissors by cutting DNA at specific recognition sequences.
Restriction Enzymes
Saccharomyces cerevisiae, commonly known as baker's or brewer's yeast, converts sugars into carbon dioxide and this alcohol.
Ethanol
Discovered by Alexander Fleming in 1928, this was the first widely used natural antibiotic.
Penicillin
The process of using living microbes to clean up pollutants, oil spills, or toxic waste from soil and water.
Bioremediation
This protein coat wraps around a virus's genetic material to protect it.
Capsid
Small, circular loops of double-stranded DNA commonly used as vectors in cloning.
Plasmids
Large vessel used to grow microorganisms under controlled temperature, pH, and oxygen conditions for product harvest.
Bioreactor (or Fermenter)
Instead of whole pathogens, lipid nanoparticles deliver this genetic blueprint into human host cells in modern COVID-19 vaccines.
mRNA (messenger RNA)
Symbiotic bacteria of the genus Rhizobium live in root nodules of legumes and perform this vital atmospheric process.
Nitrogen Fixation
Fungal cell walls are mainly made of this tough structural polysaccharide, also found in insect exoskeletons.
Chitin
This lab technique uses cycles of heating and cooling to amplify targeted DNA sequences millions of times.
PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction)
Biodegradable polymers such as PHA (polyhydroxyalkanoates) produced naturally by microbes as carbon storage are called these.
Bioplastics
Identical antibodies cloned from a single hybridoma cell line, designed to target specific antigens in cancer therapy.
Monoclonal Antibodies
This soil bacterium produces crystalline Bt proteins widely engineered into crops as natural insect repellents.
Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt)
Unlike bacteria, these domain members have ether-linked membrane lipids and thrive in extreme environments.
Archaea
In the CRISPR-Cas9 system, this molecule directs the Cas9 nuclease enzyme to the exact target DNA sequence.
Guide RNA
Enzymes from microbes added to laundry detergents to break down tough oil and lipid stains.
Lipases
This rapid molecular diagnostic test uses antibodies linked to enzymes to detect antigens or antibodies in a sample.
ELISA (Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay)
Organisms that thrive in high-salt habitats, such as Halobacterium salinarum, are classified under this extremophile type.
Halophiles
The process by which a bacterial cell directly transfers genetic material to another through a pilus.
Conjugation
This enzyme connects Okazaki fragments or recombines cut DNA fragments by forming phosphodiester bonds.
DNA Ligase
A fermentation system where nutrients are continuously added and waste/product is continuously removed to maintain exponential growth.
Continuous (Chemostat) Fermentation
Bacteriophages are specialized viruses used in therapy to target and kill these specific pathogens.
Bacteria (Bacteriophage / Phage Therapy)
Microbial fuel cells convert chemical energy stored in organic compounds directly into electricity using these biological catalysts.
Electroactive Microbes (Electrochemically Active Bacteria)