Memory Systems
The 3 stages of memory
What are encoding, storage, and retrieval?
A short-term memory strategy which involves repeating information over and over to keep in active
What is maintenance rehearsal?
A process by which memories are reconstructed or expanded starting with one memory then following chains of association to other related memories
What is redintegration?
Forgetting because we never formed the memory
What is ineffective encoding?
The process of thinking, gaining knowledge, and dealing with knowledge
What is cognition?
This consists of words or symbols and rules for combining them
What is language?
Going from facts or observations to general principles
What is inductive thought?
The ability to combine mental elements in new and interesting ways
What is creativity?
The overall capacity for rational thought, purposeful action, and effective adaptation
What is intelligence?
This is a reaction that requires no prior experience
What is the unconditioned response?
In this scedule reinforcement is delivered after specific, unchanging number of responses
What is a fixed ratio schedule?
This is the removal of inhibition, which results in behavior that normally would be constrained
What is disinhibition?
The 3 stages of memory in the Atkinson-Shiffrin model
What are sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory?
A short-term memory strategy which involves making information more meaningful
What is elaborative processing?
A process of using sensory cues and strategies to improve eyewitness memory
What is cognitive interviewing?
Forgetting because memory traces fade over time
What is decay theory?
Thought that is passive, effortless, and automatic
What is experiential processing?
The idea that the words we use reflect our thoughts but can shape them as well
What is the linguistic relativity hypothesis?
Going from general principles to specific situations
What is deductive thought?
A type of thinking indicative of routine problem solving
What is convergent thinking?
The measure of an individual's overall intelligence as opposed to specific abilities
What is g-factor (or general abilities factor)?
This is something that, when repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to elicit a learned response
What is the conditioned stimulus?
This occurs when a response is followed by reward
What is positive reinforcement?
This is a person who serves as an example in observational learning
What is a model?
A type of sensory memory for visual information
What is iconic memory?
A short-term memory strategy which involves splitting information into bits/pieces of info into meaningful info
What is chunking?
The feeling that a memory is available, but not accessible
What is the tip-of-the-tongue state?
Forgetting because we don't use the information
What is disuse?
Thought that is active, effortful, and controlled
What is reflective processing?
Basic speech sounds
What are phonemes?
A type of problem solving which involves logically following a series of step-by-step rules
What are algorithmic solutions?
A type of thinking that produces more ideas or alternatives and is more like creative thinking
What is divergent thinking?
The 5 cognitive factors assessed by the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales thought to make up general intelligence
What are fluid reasoning, knowledge, quantitative reasoning, visual-spatial reasoning, and working memory?
This is a form of learning in which reflex responses are associated with new stimuli
What is classical conditioning?
This is the reinforcement of behaviors that are increasingly close approximations to a desired response
What is shaping?
This is a system for classifying what we learn and how we learn
What is Bloom's Taxonomy?
A type of sensory memory for auditory information
What is echoic memory?
An unintended consequence of elaborative processing in which we fill in memory gaps with logical information
What are false memories?
Remembering the last and first items on a list better than the middle
What is the serial position effect?
Failing to access a memory even though it is stored in LTM
What is ineffective retrieval?
Pictures of visual depictions used in memory and thinking
What are mental images?
Smallest meaningful units in a language
What are morphemes?
A type of problem solving that uses shortcuts for finding a solution to a problem
What are heuristics?
An error in intuitive thought where people often ignore the base rates of an event
What is underlying odds?
How the intelligence quotient (IQ) used to be calculated
What is (mental age/chronological age) x 100?
This is the weakening of a conditioned response by repeatedly presenting the conditioned stimulus without the unconditioned stimulus
What is extinction?
Is this schedule reinforcement is delivered after varying, unpredictable number of responses
What is the variable ratio schedule?
This is the belief that intelligence and talents are inborn and cannot easily be changed
What is a fixed mindset?
A type of long-term memory for motor skills
What is procedural memory?
This views memory as an organized system of linked information
What is the network model?
The ability to correctly identify previously learned information
What is recognition?
Remembering best when the mood/context during testing matched the mood/context during learning
What is state-dependent memory?
An idea that represents a category of objects or events
What is a concept?
Set of rules for combining language into meaningful speech or writing
What is grammar?
When one suddenly solves a problem
What is insight?
An error in intuitive thought demonstrated by the tendency to give greater weight to a choice that seems similar to other members of a class we already know
What is representativeness?
The 4 subtests on the Wechsler Intelligence Tests
What are verbal comprehension, perceptual reasoning, working memory, and processing speed?
This is a learned response to the conditioned stimulus
What is the conditioned response?
This occurs when a response is followed by removal of unpleasant stimulus
What is negative reinforcement?
This is the reduction in emotional sensitivity to stimulus
What is desensitization?
A type of long-term memory that contains factual information
What is declarative memory?
an especially vivid and detailed recollection of an emotional event
What is a flashbulb memory?
The direct retrieval of information with a minimum amount of external cues
What is recall?
When new learning interferes with old memory
What is retroactive interference?
The process of classifying information into meaningful categories
What is concept formation?
The study of meanings in words and language
Was is semantics?
The tendency to repeat wrong solutions or faulty responses, especially as a result of becoming blind to alternatives
What is fixation?
An error in intuitive thought where the terms in which a problem is stated can influence the solution
What is framing?
These individuals have either a high IQ (at or above 130) or special talents or aptitudes
Who are mentally gifted individuals?
This elicits a response without any prior experience
What is the unconditioned stimulus?
In this schedule reinforcement is delivered after a set, unchanging period of time
What is fixed interval?
This is when teachers create conditions that encourage students to discover or construct knowledge for themselves
What is dicovery learning?
A type of declarative LTM that records general knowledge
What is semantic memory?
The ability to retain a projected mental image long enough to use it as a source of information
What is photographic or eidetic memory?
Keeping distressing thoughts and feelings in the unconscious
What is repression?
When old learning interferes with new memory
What is proactive interference?
A part of concept formation that involves 2 or more features in common
What are conjunctive concept?
Part of grammar which concerns rules for words order when forming sentences
What is syntax?
What is understanding?
An error in intuitive thought where "hot cognition" can influence our better judgements
What is emotion?
This is defined as an IQ score below 70 and a significant impairment in adaptive behavior
What is intellectual disability?
This is the tendency to show the conditioned response toward stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus
What is stimulus generalization?
This occurs when response is followed by negative consequence
What is positive punishment?
This is the belief that intelligence and talents can be developed through hard work and effort
What is a growth mindset?
A type of declarative LTM that records personal experiences
What is episodic memory?
People with "perfect" episodic memory
What is highly superior autobiographical memory?
Active, conscious attempt to not remember something
What is suppression?
The inability to remember events prior to an injury or trauma
What is retrograde amnesia?
A part of concept formation that involves at least one of several features
What is a disjunctive concept?
A type of communication which does not rely on speech and text and has spatial grammar
What is gestural language?
The tendency to perceive an item only in terms of its most common use
What is functional fixedness?
An error in intuitive thought where too many choices can lead to low-level stress and influence our decisions
What are cognition and stress?
These tests are designed to minimize the importance of skills and knowledge that may be more common in some cultures than in others
What are culture-fair tests?
This is a stimulus that does not produce a specific response
What is the neutral stimulus?
In this schedule reinforcement is delivered after varying, unpredictable amount of time
What is variable interval?
These include making connections, testing yourself, metacognitive strategies, spacing out learning
What are learning strategies?
The part of the brain where memories are stored
What is the hippocampus?
People who have exceptional semantic memory systems
Who are mnemonists?
A memory strategy where you distribute practice/learning throughout the week
What is spaced practice?
The inability to remember events that follow an injury or trauma
What is anterograde amnesia?
An ideal model used as a prime example
What is a prototype?
This pygmy chimpanzee was taught to communication using lexigrams (geometric word-symbols) on a computer keyboard
Who was Kanzi?
The 4 common barriers to problem solving
What are emotional barriers, cultural barriers, learned barriers, and perceptual barriers?
These are the 5 stages of creative thought
What are orientation, preparation, incubation, illumination, and verification?
These are the 9 intelligences named in Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences
What are intrapersonal, interpersonal, bodily-kinesthetic, naturalistic, visual, musical, logical-mathematical, existential, and linguistic?
This is the reappearance of a conditioned response after apparent extinction
What is spontaneous recovery?
This occurs when a response is followed by an end to positive circumstances
What is negative punishment?
These are the 3 steps of observational learning
What are:
1) Paying attention
2) Remembering
3) Reproducing