Learning
What type of learning occurs when a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a stimulus that naturally produces a response?
Classical conditioning
What are the three main processes involved in memory?
Encoding, storage, and retrieval.
Which psychologist proposed four stages of cognitive development in children?
Jean Piaget.
What is the psychological term for a picturelike mental representation of an object or event that is not currently being perceived?
Mental imagery.
What is the difference between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation?
Correct answer:
Intrinsic motivation: Doing something because the activity itself is enjoyable or interesting.
Extrinsic motivation: Doing something to obtain a separable outcome, such as a reward or grade, or to avoid punishment.
A student starts attending classes regularly because the teacher gives bonus points for attendance. What type of reinforcement is this?
Positive reinforcement.
A student remembers the number 8702159436 more easily by dividing it into 870–215–9436. What memory strategy is being used?
Chunking.
According to Vygotsky, what is the name of the gap between what a child can do independently and what they can achieve with guidance?
Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD).
A student repeatedly uses the same problem-solving method, even when it no longer works. What cognitive barrier does this illustrate?
Mental set.
A tendency to approach problems using methods that worked in the past.
According to Self-Determination Theory, what are the three basic psychological needs that support motivation and well-being?
Autonomy
Competence
Relatedness
A child begins imitating aggressive behavior after watching an adult act aggressively toward a doll. Which psychologist studied this phenomenon, and what is the learning process called?
Albert Bandura — observational learning (modeling)
During a memory experiment, participants remember the first and last words of a list better than the words in the middle. What is this phenomenon called? Name its two components.
The serial position effect.
Primacy effect: better recall of early items.
Recency effect: better recall of the last items.
In Harry Harlow's experiments, infant monkeys preferred a soft cloth surrogate mother over a wire surrogate mother that provided food. What did these findings demonstrate?
The importance of contact comfort in attachment.
Robert Sternberg proposed that intelligence consists of three components. Name all three.
Analytical intelligence
Creative intelligence
Practical intelligence
According to the Yerkes–Dodson Law, why might extremely high levels of arousal reduce performance on a difficult exam?
Excessively high arousal can interfere with attention, concentration, and cognitive performance.
Explanation: Performance often benefits from an appropriate level of arousal, but the optimal level depends on task difficulty.
A student explores a new university building without trying to memorize the layout. A week later, they can easily find their way around. What type of learning explains this?
Latent learning.
After witnessing a car accident, a person hears misleading information about what happened. Later, their memory of the accident changes. What is this phenomenon called, and which psychologist is associated with it?
The misinformation effect — Elizabeth Loftus.
A 16-year-old experiments with different interests, values, friendships, and future careers while trying to understand who they are. According to Erik Erikson, which psychosocial stage are they experiencing?
Identity vs. Role Confusion.
A student is trying to solve a problem but keeps thinking of only one traditional use for an object. For example, they cannot imagine using a coin as a screwdriver.
What cognitive barrier does this situation illustrate?
Functional Fixedness.
Two students experience a racing heart before an exam. One interprets it as fear, while the other interprets it as excitement. Which theory of emotion explains the role of physiological arousal and cognitive labeling?
Schachter–Singer's Two-Factor Theory of Emotion.
Explanation: Emotional experience involves physiological arousal and a cognitive interpretation of that arousal based on the situation.
A person keeps checking social media because likes and notifications appear unpredictably after different numbers of checks. Identify the reinforcement schedule that best fits this example and explain why it can make the behavior difficult to stop.
Variable-ratio reinforcement schedule.
Explanation: Rewards follow an unpredictable number of responses. This uncertainty can maintain persistent checking because the person cannot predict which response will be rewarded.
A student can easily identify the correct definition of a psychological concept in a multiple-choice test but struggles to explain the same concept in an open-ended question. Explain this difference using two memory retrieval processes.
Recognition and recall.
Explanation:
Recognition involves identifying previously learned information when it is presented.
Recall requires retrieving information with few or no external cues.
Multiple-choice tests provide retrieval cues, while open-ended questions require more independent retrieval.
Two children are learning a new language. One learns independently through exploration, while the other improves significantly when receiving guidance from a more knowledgeable person. Explain how Piaget and Vygotsky would interpret these learning experiences differently.
Piaget: Emphasized children's active construction of knowledge through exploration, interaction with the environment, and cognitive development.
Vygotsky: Emphasized social interaction, cultural tools, and guided learning within the Zone of Proximal Development.
Two equally capable students complete an intelligence test in English. One is a native English speaker, while the other is still learning English. The second student receives a lower score. Explain why this result may not accurately reflect their intelligence.
Language demands and cultural bias can influence IQ test performance.
Explanation: The second student may struggle with understanding instructions, vocabulary, or culturally specific content. These difficulties can lower their score independently of the underlying cognitive abilities the test is intended to measure.
Two students receive the same unexpected assignment. Student A thinks, "This is a disaster. I cannot handle it." Student B thinks, "This is challenging, but I have enough time and resources to prepare."
Using Lazarus's Cognitive Appraisal Theory, explain why these students may experience different levels of stress. Include primary and secondary appraisal in your answer.
Primary appraisal: Student A interprets the assignment as a threat, while Student B interprets it as a challenge.
Secondary appraisal: Student A believes their coping resources are insufficient, while Student B believes they have the resources and ability to manage the assignment.
Conclusion: Different appraisals of the same situation can produce different stress responses.