Claims & Evidence
Trials & Bias
Correlation & Causation
Media & Pseudoscience
Peer Review & Integrity
100
Emotive claims rely on feelings or persuasion; evidence-based claims are supported by reliable data and reasoning
What is the difference between an emotive claim and an evidence-based claim?
100
Claim states the position; evidence supplies data; reasoning links evidence to the claim
What do Claim, Evidence, and Reasoning each contribute when evaluating a statement?
100
A biased or tiny sample can make weak claims look supported
Why does sample selection matter when testing a product or manufacturer claim?
100
Use controls, adequate sampling, clear measurements, and minimise bias
How can you design a fair test of a marketed scientific claim?
100
It is testable, open to revision, based on evidence, and subject to scrutiny rather than unfalsifiable assertion
What makes a claim scientific rather than pseudoscientific?
200
To compare against the treatment and show what happens without the tested factor
What is the purpose of a control group?
200
An inactive treatment used so participants do not know if they received the real intervention
What is a placebo?
200
Neither participants nor the researchers interacting with them know who received treatment or placebo
What does double-blind mean in a trial?
200
They limit expectation effects and researcher influence on results
How do blinding and placebos reduce bias when testing claims?
200
Funding, incentives, or public pressure can bias design, reporting, or which results are emphasised
How can societal or economic pressures distort data collection or interpretation?
300
No — that shows correlation, not necessarily cause and effect
If two variables increase together, does that prove causation?
300
An extra factor that influences results and can create a false causal appearance
What is a confounding variable?
300
Linked trends are easier to dramatise than careful controlled evidence
Why do media stories often confuse correlation with causation?
300
They can strengthen, weaken, or distort an apparent trend
How can outliers affect interpretation of a relationship in data?
300
Plausible mechanism, temporal order, dose–response, controlling confounders, or replicated experiments (any one)
Name one criterion that strengthens a causal argument beyond correlation alone.
400
Untestable claims, ignoring contrary evidence, or lacking proper peer scrutiny (accept equivalent)
Give one hallmark of pseudoscience.
400
A positive impression in one area unfairly increases trust in unrelated claims
What is the halo effect when judging claims?
400
Media may simplify, sensationalise, or omit methods and uncertainty
How can popular media differ from peer-reviewed scientific reporting?
400
It can present unequal evidence as if the positions were equally supported
Why can “both sides” framing in media debates mislead the public?
400
Loose words like “proves”, “toxic”, or “natural” can overstate or distort the evidence
Why does precise scientific language matter when evaluating public claims?
500
Independent experts check methods and conclusions, catching errors and improving quality
What is one main benefit of peer review?
500
Career pressure to publish often, which can incentivise rushed or poor practice
What does “publish or perish” pressure refer to?
500
Personal, financial, or professional interests that could bias the work or its reporting
What is a conflict of interest in research?
500
Fraud, hidden errors, or biased review can still occur; replication remains important
Why can’t peer review alone guarantee that fake or flawed science never appears?
500
Misleading publications can spread false claims and reduce trust in science
How are research fraud, publication incentives, and public trust connected?
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