Molecular Biology
Immunology
Biochemistry
Pharmacology
Genetics
Embryology
Random
100
The order of events leading to protein synthesis
What is Replication, Transcription, and Translation?
100
Self vs. Non-self
What is discrimination?
100
Most common cause of death in Sickle Cell Disease
What is Infection?
100
ADME
What are Absorption, Distribution, Metabolism, and Excretion?
100
Transition
What is one purine is substituted for the other purine (A>G), or one pyrimidine is substituted for the pyrimidine (C>T)?
100
Bilaminer Disc Components
What are the Epiblast and the Hypoblast?
100
Social Determinants of Health
What are the the economic and social conditions that influence individual and group differences in health status?
200
MRN processing
What is 5’ capping and 3’ poly-A tail?
200
Nonspecific arm
What is the Innate immune system?
200
RBC Lifespan
What is 90 - 120 days?
200
The 3 things that effect Drug Absorption
What are lipid solubility, ionization state, and molecule size?
*Non-ionized (non-charged) molecules cross cellular membranes more easily than charged.
200
Transversion
What is the substitution of a purine (A or G) for a pyrimidine (T or C)?
200
Blastocyst components
What are the Embryoblast and the Trophoblast?
200
Chromatin
What is an array of nucleosomes (DNA wrapped around a histone octamer)?
300
The 3 steps of Transcription
What are Initiation, Elongation, and Termination? 
300
Inflammation
What is the protective responses intended to eliminate the initial cause of cell injury as well as the necrotic cells and tissues resulting from the insults?
300
O2 binding behavior
What is positive allosteric effect?
*In addition to O2, hemoglobin is also affected by concentrations of 2,3-BPG, CO, H+, CO2, and glucose.
300
The fraction of administered drug that reaches the systemic circulation in a chemically unchanged form.
What is Bioavailability?
*Calculated relative to plasma concentrations reached by IV injection.
It is the ratio of the area under curve (AUC) calculated for oral administration relative to the AUC calculated for IV injection.
*The liver metabolizes many drugs and may severely alter the concentration reaching the circulatory system. This first pass through the liver thus can greatly reduce the bioavailability of the drug.
*Bioequivalence: How drugs compare in terms of bioavailability (and, therefore, time to achieve peak blood concentrations)
300
Allelic Heterogeneity
What are similar phenotypes caused by different mutations in the same gene? (All in one)
300
Formation of the germ layers
What is Gastrulation?
300
CO binding behavior
What is competitive antagonism?
***CO binds to the ferrous iron in hemoglobin and myoglobin with 200 times higher affinity than O2 .
competitive antagonism- CO and O2 compete for the same binding site.
In addition to keeping O2 off the heme iron, bound CO greatly increases the oxygen-binding affinities of the remaining heme groups, further impairing oxygen transport.
Despite its high affinity, CO binding is reversible. In a normally breathing patient with CO poisoning, O2 gradually displaces the CO from the heme iron. CO is exhaled through the lungs, and the patient recovers slowly in the course of several hours. Carbon monoxide poisoning can be treated with hyperbaric oxygen, which accelerates this process.
Patients with CO poisoning are not cyanotic because CO hemoglobin has a bright cherry-red color
Throbbing headache, confusion, and fainting on exertion occur when 30% to 50% of the heme groups are occupied by CO and a CO saturation of 80% is rapidly fatal.
Smokers have 4% to 8% of their hemoglobin in the CO form.
400
Nucleosome
What is DNA wrapped around a histone octamer that is composed of histones H2A, H2B, H3 and H4?
400
Results of Inflammation
What are Heat, Swelling, Pain, Redness, and Tenderness?
400
Glutathione amino acids
What are Cysteine, Glycine, and Glutamate?
*Why is Cysteine important?
400
The volume of distribution
What represents the volume of body fluid in which a drug appears to be dissolved, assuming uniform distribution?
*Vd = Q/Cp
Where Q is the total amount of drug in the body and Cp is the plasma drug concentration
*In general:
Higher Vd = not as much in plasma relative to total in body; likely more in cells.
Lower Vd = more in plasma relative to total in body; likely less in cells.
400
Locus Heterogenity
What is the same phenotype caused by mutations in the same gene? 
400
The 3 divisions of mesoderm
What are Paraxial, Intermediate, and Lateral Plate (subdivided into Visceral and Parietal layers)?
400
Child uses the caregiver's response to the situation to determine how he/she should react.
What is social referencing?
500
Histone Covalent Modifications
What are acetylation (ac), methylation (me), phosphorylation (ph) and ubiquitination (ub1)?
500
First responders
What are Neutrophils
500
Band 3
What is the anion channel that mediates Cl-/HCO3 exchange in RBCs?
500
Therapeutic Index
What is the ratio of the toxic dose divided by the therapeutic (effective) dose, TD50/ED50?
*It is a measure of a drug’s safety because a large value indicates a wide margin between doses that are effective and doses that are toxic.
A low therapeutic index indicates that there is a high risk of toxicity (Example: Warfarin).
500
The 3 types of Point Mutations?
What are silent, missense, and nonsense?
500
Formation of Organs
What is Organogenesis?
500
The Bohr effect
What is an acidic environment reduces the oxygen affinity of hemoglobin, resulting in the release of bound oxygen?
*Oxygen is released when protons bind to hemoglobin. About 0.6 protons bind when one oxygen molecule leaves. An increased proton concentration pushes the reaction to the left, releasing oxygen from hemoglobin.
In addition to its acidifying action, CO2 reduces the oxygen affinity of hemoglobin by reversible covalent modification of the terminal amino groups of the α- and β-chains. This reaction forms carbamino hemoglobin:
600
Enzyme that carries out Histone Acetylation
What is Histone Acetyltransferase (HAT)?
600
Removes debris
What are Macrophages?
600
Two shunts of Glycolysis
What are the 2-3 BPG Shunt and Pentose Phosphate Shunt?
1. Synthesizes 2,3-BPG (or 2,3-DPG) via bisphosphoglycerate mutase (BPGM)
2. Makes NADPH to maintain glutathione and ascorbate and reduce H2O2 and oxygen free radicals (needs G6PH)
600
A protective mechanism guarding the brain against circulating molecules.
What is the Blood Brain Barrier?
*In brain, capillaries not only lack fenestrations, the endothelial cells composing these structures have “tight junctions” which hold the cells together tightly and prevent passage of molecules with low lipophilicity.
600
Frame Shift
What is the addition or deletion of 1-2 nucleotides or more, leading to subsequent misreading of codons and usually a truncated protein?
600
Formation of the nervous system
What is Neurulation? 
600
Middle childhood (ages 6-12) in Piaget's Cognitive Development Theory
What is the Concrete Operational Stage?
700
Chromatin Remodeling factor associated with transcriptional activation
What is Swi/Snf?
*ATP-dependent chromatin remodeling factors alter chromatin structure to regulate transcription.
Chromatin remodeling complex has ATPase activity.
Example: Swi/Snf complex
Swi/Snf complex is generally associated with transcriptional activation.
700
Lack fine specificity
What are the receptors of the Innate immune system?
700
Fe3+ disease state
What is Methemoglobinemia?
*Usually controlled by methemoglobin reductase and NADH (from glycolysis) Patients treated with methylene blue (restores reducing environment).
700
Biotransformation
What is the metabolism of (lipophilic) drugs into more easily excreted hydrophilic compounds?
*Generally, making the drug molecules more polar and more water soluble.
700
Affected mother passes on to all offspring, no risk to offspring from affected father
What are mitochondrial genes? 
700
Lateral Body Folding
What is when left and right lateral body folds join/fuse ventrally in the midline of the body?
*Ectopic Cordia
700
Secondary Prevention
What is screening to identify diseases in the earliest stages, before the onset of signs and symptoms?
- Primary prevention – a community implements the CATCH nutrition program in schools district wide
- Secondary prevention – providing a CT scan for individuals with a history of smoking
- Tertiary prevention – daily low-dose aspirin for those with previous myocardial infarction
- Quaternary prevention – wait and see for ear pain, *PSA levels in the elderly
800
Location of DNA methylation
What are CpQ islands?
800
Chemotactic Effect
What is extravasation & diapedesis of neutrophils?
800
Hemoglobin Varients
What are Embryonic hemoglobin (Hbε) (2ζ/2ε), Fetal hemoglobin (HbF) (2α/2γ), Adult hemoglobin A1 (HbA1), and Adult hemoglobin A2 (HbA2) (2α/2δ)?
800
Phase II reactions
What are generally conjugation reactions which make compounds more water soluble?
*Phase I Reactions:
Generally make compounds less active or less toxic and/or more water soluble, but can make them more toxic.
*Generally, Phase I reactions occur first followed by Phase II; however, this is not always the case. Phase I or Phase II reactions may occur solely or a Phase II reaction may be followed by a Phase I reaction.
800
Used to amplify DNA which can then be visualized on a gel or sequenced
What is PCR?
800
Cephalocaudal folding
What is when the cranial & caudal ends of the embryo move towards each other, ventrally?
800
Rate limiting Heme synthesis enzyme
What is ALA synthase?
*Step 1 is ALA synthase, step 2 is ALA dehydrogenase, which is zinc dependent. Lead poisoning disrupts step 2.
900
3 epigenetic regulations of gene expression
What are DNA methylation, Histone modifications, and ATP dependent chromatin remodeling complexes?
*
All cell types in our body have the same DNA sequences, but expressed differentially. This is due to different chromatin structures in different cell types.
Therefore, gene expression is controlled epigenetically
--By DNA methylation.
--By histone modifications.
--By ATP-dependent chromatin remodeling factors.
Hence, epigenetics plays important roles in differential gene expression in different cell types in our body.
900
The 3 Functional Types of Innate Immune System Receptors
What are Phagocytic, Chemotactic, and Effector molecular induction?
900
HbS mutation
What is Glutamate to Valine?
*Hydrophobic clumping of exposed Valines cause polymerization
*HbC is Glutamate to Lysine
*Treatments include Hydroxyurea, which increases HbF and Voxelotor, which increases hemoglobin's affinity for O2
900
Pre-ganglionic neurotransmitter
What is Acetylcholine?
900
ABO locus
What is the gene on chromosome 9 that encodes glycosyltransferase?
900
Latin for mulburry
What is Morula?
*A solid ball of 16 cells resulting from division of a fertilized ovum, and from which a blastula is formed.
900
Hemoglobin gene that appears to be constitutively active during development
What is a-globin? 
1000
Transcriptional factor involved in the silencing of fetal hemoglobin expression
What is BCL11A?
*KLF1 activates BCL11A expression, so it also influences hemoglobin switching both by directly activating β-globin in the adult stage as well as promoting the expression of the γ-globin silencer BCL11A.
1000
Endogenous Pyrogens
What are IL-1, IL-6, TNF-a?
1000
Types of alpha and beta Thalassemias
What are 1α silent, 2α trait, 3a HbH disease, 4a major (hydrops fetalis), 1b silent or trait, 2b major (Cooley anemia, beta null)?
1000
UDP-glucuronosyl transferase
What is the enzyme that conjugates Bilirubin with glucuronic acid for excretion?
*Bilirubin is conjugated with glucuronic acid for excretion. The UDP-glucuronosyl transferase enzyme is not well expressed in newborns and is lowest in premature infants. Bilirubin can accumulate in babies with low expression levels of this enzyme and they can develop jaundice.
1000
The 2 types of gene polymorphisms seen on PCR
What are single nucleotide and VNTR (variable number tandem repeats)?
1000
Cardiovascular neural crest derivatives
What are the Aorticopulmonary septum and the Semilunar Valves? (via the outflow tract endocardial cushions)
1000
NO hemoglobin binding state
What is the T(tense, oxygenated) state?
*Hemoglobin binds/transfers NO in the T state, and transports NO in the R state. Doing this, Hemoglobin facilitates detoxification and transport of NO -- Conversion of unstable free plasma NO to stable X-S-NO