Flaw or Descriptive Weakening
Brian: I used to eat cheeseburgers from fast-food restaurants almost every day. But then I read that eating bread and meat in the same meal interferes with digestion. So I stopped eating cheeseburgers and switched to a diet of lean meats, fruits, and vegetables. Since starting this new diet, I feel much better and my cholesterol level and blood pressure are lower. This proves that eating bread and meat in the same meal is unhealthy.
The reasoning in Brian's argument is flawed in that the argument:
A. treats a statement as established fact merely because a self-appointed expert has asserted it
B. draws a conclusion that merely restates a premise offered in support of it
C. treats a condition that must occur in order for an effect to occur as a condition that would ensure that the effect occurs
D. concludes that one part of a change was responsible for an effect without ruling out the possibility that other parts of that change were responsible
E. concludes that making a dietary change improved the health of a particular person simply because that change results in improved health for most people
D. concludes that one part of a change was responsible for an effect without ruling out the possibility that other parts of that change were responsible
Identify and Describe Flaw
The author assumes that the combination of bread and meat in the same meal was the cause of his higher levels of cholesterol and blood pressure before switching his diet. This overlooks the possibility that the true cause was eating meals from fast-food restaurants every day. Perhaps if he had eaten bread and meat in the same meal, but the meal was from places besides fast-food restaurants, he wouldn’t have suffered from higher cholesterol and blood pressure.
Many people who simply enjoy listening to popular music do not realize that it has been used to express religious and political messages. After all, popular music has repeatedly been adopted by social movements to express their viewpoints, since it has the potential to contribute to the "conversion" of nonmembers to the movement's position, as well as to raise the morale and to express the solidarity of the movement's participants.
Which one of the following most accurately expresses the main conclusion of the argument?
A. Popular music accounts for the success of social movements.
B. Popular music's entertainment value has been overemphasized.
C. Popular music is the most effective way of converting people to social movements.
D. Popular music has purposes other than mere entertainment.
E. Popular music has a profound emotional impact on its listeners.
D. Popular music has purposes other than mere entertainment.
This paraphrases the conclusion at a more general level. The stimulus says popular music has been used for religious and political messages; (D) states this more generally as purposes other than mere entertainment. Religious and political messages count as purposes other than entertainment, so (D) captures the conclusion.
In the past, infants who were not breast-fed were fed cow's milk. Then doctors began advising that cow's milk fed to infants should be boiled, as the boiling would sterilize the milk and prevent gastrointestinal infections potentially fatal to infants. Once this advice was widely implemented, there was an alarming increase among infants in the incidence of scurvy, caused by vitamin C deficiency. Breast-fed infants, however, did not contract scurvy.
Which one of the following is most strongly supported by the information above?
A. Boiled cow's milk makes less vitamin C available to infants than does the same amount of mother's milk.
B. Infants who consume cow's milk that has not been boiled frequently contract potentially fatal gastrointestinal infections.
C. Mother’s milk can cause gastrointestinal infections in infants.
D. When doctors advised that cow's milk fed to infants should be boiled, they did not know that scurvy was caused by vitamin C deficiency.
E. When doctors advised that cow's milk fed to infants should be boiled, most mothers did not breast-feed their infants.
A. Boiled cow's milk makes less vitamin C available to infants than does the same amount of mother's milk.
(A) matches the causal inference you should aspire to anticipate after reading the stimulus. Scurvy is caused by a vitamin C deficiency, and (A) provides a mechanism by which drinking boiled cow's milk would result in that deficiency.
For people caught up on "the same amount" – (A) does indeed require the very reasonable assumption that babies drink similar-ish amounts of boiled cow's milk as they would breast milk. This is an MSS question – reasonable assumptions informed by how the real world works are allowed.
In view of the considerable length of the police chief's tenure as head of the department, the chief should be held accountable for the widespread corruption in the department. That no evidence was discovered that the chief was involved in any way in the corruption does not allow us to escape this conclusion.
Which one of the following principles, if valid, most helps to justify the argument?
A. Any supervisor who knowingly tolerates widespread corruption among his or her subordinates should be held accountable.
B. If a person has been in a position of authority for a long time and all of that person's subordinates are corrupt, then he or she could not help but know about that corruption.
C. A supervisor should not be held accountable for widespread corruption among his or her subordinates unless the supervisor could reasonably be expected to know about that corruption.
D. If corruption is rampant among a certain group, then the person in charge cannot be expected to take corrective action if that person has not been in charge for very long.
E. If a person has been in a position of authority for a long time, then there is no excuse that can absolve the person of responsibility for widespread corruption among subordinates.
E. If a person has been in a position of authority for a long time, then there is no excuse that can absolve the person of responsibility for widespread corruption among subordinates.
(E) gets us from the premise to the conclusion. The chief has been head of the department (so, in a position of authority) for a long time. According to (E), then, the chief has no excuse that can absolve him from responsibility for widespread corruption among subordinates (the people supervised in the department). If he has no excuse that can absolve him from responsibility, that means he should be held responsible.
Sam: Mountain lions, a protected species, are preying on bighorn sheep, another protected species. We must let nature take its course and hope the bighorns survive.
Meli: Nonsense. We must do what we can to ensure the survival of the bighorn, even if that means limiting the mountain lion population.
Which one of the following is a point of disagreement between Meli and Sam?
A. Humans should not intervene to protect bighorn sheep from mountain lions.
B. The preservation of a species as a whole is more important than the loss of a few individuals.
C. The preservation of a predatory species is easier to ensure than the preservation of the species preyed upon.
D. Any measures to limit the mountain lion population would likely push the species to extinction.
E. If the population of mountain lions is not limited, the bighorn sheep species will not survive.
A. Humans should not intervene to protect bighorn sheep from mountain lions.
Sam agrees with this, but Meli disagrees, meaning that this is the point of disagreement. Sam states that humans should “let nature take its course,” meaning not intervene, while Meli says that humans should take action to protect the sheep.
If the proposed air pollution measures were to be implemented, ozone levels in the city's air would be one fifth lower than current levels. Since the ozone in our air is currently responsible for over $5 billion in health costs, we would spend about a billion dollars less on these ozone-related health costs should the proposed measures be adopted.
The argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that it
A. fails to consider the possibility that other types of pollution not involving ozone might rise, perhaps even producing an overall increase in health costs
B. presumes, without providing evidence, that ozone-related health costs in the city vary roughly in proportion to ozone levels
C. provides no explicit reason for believing that the proposed air pollution measures will in fact be adopted
D. attempts to support its conclusion by making an appeal to emotions
E. discusses air pollution in order to draw attention away from more significant sources of health-related costs
B. presumes, without providing evidence, that ozone-related health costs in the city vary roughly in proportion to ozone levels
Analysis: The author concludes that ozone-related health costs would reduce by one fifth, simply because ozone levels would reduce by one fifth. In doing so, she assumes, without any evidence, that ozone-related health costs and ozone levels change in proportion to one another. Its also possible that the measures could reduce ozone levels without affecting ozone-related healthcare costs at all.
Columnist: Many people with access to the Internet express a longing for emotional connection to a global human community. This longing often leads them to use the Internet to learn about other cultures. However, learning about other cultures probably will not satisfy their longing, for the Internet is utilized primarily for acquiring information rather than developing feelings of interconnectedness.
Which one of the following most accurately expresses the conclusion drawn in the columnist's argument?
A. It is common for people who have access to the Internet to express a longing for emotional connection to an international human community.
B. The longing for emotional connection to a global human community frequently leads people to use the Internet in order to acquire information about other cultures.
C. People who have access to the Internet tend to use it primarily for acquiring information and only secondarily for developing feelings of interconnectedness.
D. For people desiring connection to a global human community, learning about other cultures through the Internet probably will not provide emotional connection to those cultures.
E. When people long for connection to a global human community, they tend to engage in behavior that results in the acquisition of knowledge about other cultures but rarely produces genuine emotional connection to those cultures.
D. For people desiring connection to a global human community, learning about other cultures through the Internet probably will not provide emotional connection to those cultures.
This is a paraphrase of the conclusion that fills in the referential language. Learning about other cultures probably will not satisfy the longing of people for emotional connection to a global human community.
Democratic societies in which there is widespread discontent more often blame their politicians than they do other powerful figures who are at least as responsible for those societies' woes. This is not primarily because politicians are more familiar to people than are other powerful figures; rather it is because people in democratic societies feel that they have more power over politicians than they have over other powerful figures.
Show answer6.
The case described above best illustrates which one of the following generalizations?
A. Often the people who have the most power in a society are not the people who are generally perceived by the public as having the most power.
B. People tend to ascribe more power to a person with whom they are familiar than to one with whom they are unfamiliar.
C. To the extent that a person is well known to the public, that person is more likely to be blamed for the woes of society.
D. Publicly known people are usually not held sufficiently responsible for the problems they cause.
E. People are more inclined to blame a publicly known person if that person is someone over whom they feel they have power.
E. People are more inclined to blame a publicly known person if that person is someone over whom they feel they have power.
(E) tells us that for publicly known persons, societies are more inclined to blame those over whom people think they have power than those over whom people think they do not have power. (E) is best illustrated by the stimulus, because the stimulus provided a causal connection between the level of power society feels it has over someone and the likelihood that society will blame that person. Between politicians and other powerful figures, the public feels it has more power over politicians, and this is why the public tends to blame politicians more often than the others.
You might find small reasons to quibble with (E). Perhaps you don’t like that the other powerful figures in the stimulus were not explicitly stated to be publicly known. Any flaw you see in (E) could, at best, only be a reason that (E) does not have to be true based on the stimulus. But that’s holding the correct answer to too high a standard; we’re simply looking for the best supported answer.
Mateo: Global warming has caused permafrost to melt under several arctic villages, forcing all their inhabitants to relocate at great expense. Since pollution from automobiles is a major contributor to global warming, the automotive industry should be required to help pay for the villagers' relocation.
Which one of the following principles, if valid, would most help to justify Mateo's argument?
A. Any industry has an obligation to pay for any damage that it should have known would result from its activities.
B. Manufacturers should be required to produce goods in a way that minimizes harm to people and the environment.
C. When the use of a product causes damage, governments should not be required to help pay for the damage unless those responsible for manufacturing the product are also required to help pay for them.
D. Any industry manufacturing a product whose use contributes to costly damage for others should be liable for any damage generated by that product's use.
E. An industry that contributes to global warming should be required to help pay for resulting damage to specific communities only if it has a general obligation to help pay for all damage produced by global warming.
D. Any industry manufacturing a product whose use contributes to costly damage for others should be liable for any damage generated by that product's use.
Helps build a bridge from the premises to the conclusion. We know that the automobile industry makes products (cars) that contribute to global warming. Global warming has caused costly damage to others (it forced villagers to relocate at great expense). (D), then, allows us to conclude that the automobile manufacturers should be liable (i.e. responsible) for damage resulting from use of its cars. This supports a judgment that they should help pay for the villager’s relocation, which partially resulted from cars.
Mark: Advances in technology have caused the decline of newspaper sales. News can be reported in articles on the Internet as it happens and at any time of day. No print newspaper can possibly keep up with that.
Fatuma: Newspaper writing is hampered by conventions that do not add to readers' understanding of the news. It is not the fault of technology that newspapers are losing their audience to the Internet. Newspaper articles are just too long. On the Internet, news articles get to the point.
Mark and Fatuma disagree over the truth of which one of the following?
A. Readers are abandoning newspapers in favor of news articles on the Internet because of the speed with which they appear on the Internet.
B. Newspaper articles are too long.
C. News articles on the Internet get to the point.
D. Newspaper writing is hampered by conventions that do not add to the reader's understanding of the news.
E. No print newspaper can possibly publish news as fast as it can be published on the Internet.
A. Readers are abandoning newspapers in favor of news articles on the Internet because of the speed with which they appear on the Internet.
This is a point of disagreement. Mark cites the fact news can appear instantly online as a reason that technology has caused the decline in newspaper sales. Fatuma does not blame timing. She instead blames the length of newspaper articles.
Philosopher: For some kinds of art, there is truth to the adage that beauty is in the eye of the beholder. A painting or sculpture that strikes one person as having artistic value may strike another as lacking such value. Consequently, there are no valid objective standards for determining the artistic value of a painting or a sculpture.
The philosopher's reasoning is flawed because it
A. relies exclusively on an old adage whose truth has not been demonstrated
B. ignores the fact that there are other kinds of art, such as literature and poetry, that may also occasion disagreement
C. fails to consider whether there are valid objective standards for evaluating non-visual art, such as music
D. fails to consider that people who disagree about the artistic value of a given painting may be incorrectly applying the same evaluation criteria to that painting
E. fails to consider that the individuals judging and disagreeing about works of art may be experts in making such judgments
D. fails to consider that people who disagree about the artistic value of a given painting may be incorrectly applying the same evaluation criteria to that painting
The philosopher mistakenly assumes that if people disagree about something, then no objective standard for judging it exists: the philosopher assumes that people disagree on artistic value because they’re all using different standards to judge the art. But it’s possible that there are objective standards, and that some people are using the same objective standards—some just apply those standards differently or incorrectly.
Geographer: Because tropical storms require heat and moisture, they form especially over ocean surfaces of at least 26 degrees Celsius (79 degrees Fahrenheit), ocean temperatures that global warming would encourage. For this reason, many early discussions of global warming predicted that it would cause more frequent and intense tropical storms. But recent research shows that this prediction is unlikely to be borne out. Other factors, such as instabilities in wind flow, are likely to counteract global warming's effects on tropical storm development.
Which one of the following most accurately expresses the conclusion drawn in the geographer's argument?
A. Tropical storms are especially likely to form over warm ocean surfaces.
B. Contrary to early discussions, global warming is not the only factor affecting the frequency and intensity of tropical storms.
C. If global warming were reversed, tropical storms would be less frequent and less intense.
D. Instabilities in wind flow will negate the effect of global warming on the formation of tropical storms.
E. Global warming probably will not produce more frequent and intense tropical storms.
E. Global warming probably will not produce more frequent and intense tropical storms.
This accurately captures the main conclusion: the geographer believes that predictions about global warming’s effect on tropical storms were likely incorrect. The answer summarizes this by stating that global warming probably won't lead to more frequent and intense storms.
The mu mesons generated by cosmic rays just outside Earth's atmosphere travel to Earth at speeds approaching the speed of light. Mu mesons generated in the laboratory, however, are nearly at rest. Mu mesons generated in the laboratory typically decay in much less time than it takes for a mu meson to travel from just outside Earth's atmosphere to our detection apparatus on Earth. If mu mesons traveling through the atmosphere at speeds approaching the speed of light typically decay as fast as they do in the laboratory, then we should detect only about one one-hundredth of the number we actually do detect. Apparently, mu mesons moving at speeds near the speed of light _______.
Which one of the following most logically completes the argument?
A. take longer to reach Earth than was supposed
B. are quite difficult to detect with available equipment
C. are much less numerous than previously thought
D. decay more slowly than mu mesons almost at rest
E. are probably not generated by cosmic rays
D. decay more slowly than mu mesons almost at rest
This is strongly supported. The stimulus says that we detect way too many mesons based on how fast they decay when at rest, but never questions the original number of mesons. This leaves us the explanation that fast-moving mesons just don’t decay that fast.
Mathematics teacher: Teaching students calculus before they attend university may significantly benefit them. Yet if students are taught calculus before they are ready for the level of abstraction involved, they may abandon the study of mathematics altogether. So if we are going to teach pre-university students calculus, we must make sure they can handle the level of abstraction involved.
Which one of the following principles most helps to justify the mathematics teacher's argument?
A. Only those who, without losing motivation, can meet the cognitive challenges that new intellectual work involves should be introduced to it.
B. Only those parts of university-level mathematics that are the most concrete should be taught to pre-university students.
C. Cognitive tasks that require exceptional effort tend to undermine the motivation of those who attempt them.
D. Teachers who teach university-level mathematics to pre-university students should be aware that students are likely to learn effectively only when the application of mathematics to concrete problems is shown.
E. The level of abstraction involved in a topic should not be considered in determining whether that topic is appropriate for pre-university students.
A. Only those who, without losing motivation, can meet the cognitive challenges that new intellectual work involves should be introduced to it.
So, if a cognitive challenge—such as the abstraction in calculus—will destroy someone’s motivation, then we should avoid that challenge. This matches the assumption that we shouldn’t teach calculus when it would make students abandon math (or in other words, lose motivation).
Paula: Earthlike planets seem to be the rule rather than the exception, so there probably are intelligent beings on other planets. Furthermore, we can expect our radio telescopes to detect signs of such beings. Alien scientists would have basically the same understanding of mathematics and physics that humans have. Thus they would inevitably discover gravity, electromagnetism, and other fundamental physical phenomena and then develop technologies such as radio communication.
Ashley: That is like saying they would inevitably have the same legal or political systems that humans do. Our science, mathematics, and technology are unique outgrowths of our physiology, cognitive makeup, and environment. Using radio telescopes to search for intelligent life is a waste of time and money.
The dialogue provides the most evidence that Paula and Ashley disagree with each other about whether
A. it is probable that there are intelligent alien beings who have developed radio communication
B. it is probable that there are intelligent alien beings who have the same legal or political systems that humans do
C. our technology is influenced by our cognitive makeup
D. there is likely to be intelligent life on other planets
E. scientists should spend more time and money on the search for intelligent extraterrestrial life
A. it is probable that there are intelligent alien beings who have developed radio communication
Paula agrees with this and Ashley disagrees, making this the point of disagreement. Paula explicitly makes this claim. Ashley argues that technology depends on unique factors in each setting. This implies that alien technology would develop differently, likely without radios.
The olecranon process is a bony part of the mammalian elbow. The shorter the olecranon process, the faster the forelimbs can typically be moved. Predatory mammals must move their forelimbs very quickly when attacking prey, and thus generally have short olecranon processes. It has recently been found that the extinct mammal Megatherium had a short olecranon process. Hence, in all probability, Megatheriumwas a predator.
The argument is most vulnerable to criticism on which one of the following grounds?
A. It fails to address the possibility that most mammals with short olecranon processes have not been predators.
B. It takes for granted that the only reason predators need to move their forelimbs quickly is to attack prey.
C. It overlooks the possibility that Megatherium could have been a successful predator even if it did not have a short olecranon process.
D. It takes for granted that, on average, the olecranon processes of extinct mammals were no shorter than those of living mammals are.
E. It fails to address the possibility that a longer olecranon process may confer some other advantage, such as greater strength.
A. It fails to address the possibility that most mammals with short olecranon processes have not been predators.
Identify and Describe Flaw
The stimulus only tells us that predators tend to have short olecranon processes. The stimulus does not say that only predators have short olecranon processes. With the information given, it can still be the case that animals that aren’t predators also have short olecranon processes.
There is little plausibility to the claim that it is absurd to criticize anyone for being critical. Obviously, people must assess one another and not all assessments will be positive. However, there is wisdom behind the injunction against being judgmental. To be judgmental is not merely to assess someone negatively, but to do so prior to a serious effort at understanding.
Which one of the following most accurately expresses the main conclusion drawn in the argument?
A. To be judgmental is to assess someone negatively prior to making a serious effort at understanding.
B. It is absurd to criticize anyone for being critical.
C. There is some plausibility to the claim that it is absurd to criticize anyone for being critical.
D. Not all assessments people make of one another will be positive.
E. There is wisdom behind the injunction against being judgmental.
E. There is wisdom behind the injunction against being judgmental.
The first and third sentences say the same thing, and they both express the main conclusion: it is okay to criticize/judge people for being critical/judgmental.
Superstring theory is a controversial new theory in physics that purports, unlike more established physical theories, to explain the nature and existence of gravity. A major problem with superstring theory is that to test it we would have to build a particle accelerator 100 trillion kilometers long. Another problem is that superstring theory has had no success in adequately explaining why the force of gravity is not stronger or weaker than it is.
Which one of the following is most strongly supported by the information above?
A. Superstring theory would be more successful if superstring theorists attempted to explain why the force of gravity is not stronger or weaker than it is.
B. Physical theories that are better established than superstring theory provide better explanations of physical phenomena than does superstring theory.
C. Some physical theory more established than superstring theory has had at least some success in explaining why the force of gravity is not stronger or weaker than it is.
D. A physical theory cannot be true if testing that theory would require us to build a particle accelerator 100 trillion kilometers long.
E. A theory that purports to explain the nature of a force is deficient if it cannot account for the strength of that force.
E. A theory that purports to explain the nature of a force is deficient if it cannot account for the strength of that force.
Strongly supported. We know superstring theory hasn’t been able to explain why gravity isn’t stronger or weaker. That means it hasn’t been able to “account” (explain) for the strength of gravity. We also know this is a “problem.” That means it’s a deficiency in the theory.
Developer: The builders of the Glen Veil apartment complex will not complete the complex unless a road connecting it to the town of Sierra is built. The completed apartment complex would strengthen Sierra's economy, and a stronger economy would benefit every Sierra resident. Therefore, the residents of Sierra should vote in favor of a local tax to fund construction of the proposed road.
Which one of the following principles, if valid, would most help to justify the developer's reasoning?
A. If a construction project is necessary in order to strengthen a town's economy, then the residents of that town should vote in favor of a local tax to fund that construction project.
B.The residents of a town should not vote in favor of a local tax to fund a construction project unless that construction project will produce results that benefit all of those residents.
C. Whenever a town funds a construction project, it should do so by means of a tax rather than debt.
D. Only those residents who will benefit from the results of a construction project should be required to pay a tax to fund that project.
E. Anyone who would benefit from the results of a construction project should vote in favor of a local tax to fund that project.
E. Anyone who would benefit from the results of a construction project should vote in favor of a local tax to fund that project.
Helps connect the premises to the conclusion. We know the apartment complex won’t be completed unless the road is built. And we know the apartment complex would benefit Sierra residents by providing something that is necessary for the complex to be completed. That supports the characterization of the road as something that would benefit the residents of Sierra. According to (E), then, the residents of Sierra should vote in favor of a local tax to fund the road.
McKee: Heckling the performer is a long-standing tradition of stand-up comedy. The performers know this and learn to respond entertainingly. That's why it's unwise for comedy venues to prevent audience members from heckling.
Chapman: Heckling is only a long-standing tradition of comedy because it's tolerated. And it's usually only fun for the heckler. In most cases, heckling is just a distraction from the performance.
McKee's and Chapman's statements indicate that they disagree about each of the following except:
A. Comedy venues should tolerate audience members' heckling the performers.
B. Stand-up comedians' responses to heckling should be considered part of their stand-up comedy performance.
C. The best stand-up comedians are able to respond entertainingly when they are heckled by audience members.
D. Many audience members at comedy venues enjoy watching stand-up comedians respond to heckling.
E. It is unwise for comedy venues to disregard long-standing traditions of stand-up comedy.
C. The best stand-up comedians are able to respond entertainingly when they are heckled by audience members.
McKee agrees and Chapman states no opinion, so this is where the speakers don’t disagree. McKee says comedians in general respond entertainingly. Chapman says heckling is usually distracting, but leaves open the possibility that some skilled comedians can make it entertaining.
Although human economic exchange predates historical records, it is clear that the very first economies were based on barter and that money came later. This can be inferred from occasions in history when, in isolated places, currency largely disappeared from the local economy. At such times, the economy typically reverts to the original barter system, but then quickly abandons this form of exchange when currency becomes available again.
Which one of the following most accurately describes a flaw in the argument's reasoning?
A. The argument concludes that something can cause a particular outcome merely because it is necessary for that outcome.
B. The argument contains premises that contradict one another.
C. The argument presumes that something should be done merely because historically it has been done.
D. The argument infers a causal relation between two events merely from the fact that one event occurred before the other.
E. The argument relies on a premise that presupposes what the argument attempts to show in the conclusion.
E. The argument relies on a premise that presupposes what the argument attempts to show in the conclusion.
This accurately describes the circular reasoning. The premise describes economies reverting to "the original barter system," which presupposes that barter was the original economic system. But proving that barter was the original economic system is exactly what the conclusion is trying to do. So the premise can be persuasive support for the conclusion only if you already accept the conclusion. That's what it means for a premise to "presuppose what the argument attempts to show."
Normally, political candidates send out campaign material in order to influence popular opinion. But the recent ads for Ebsen's campaign were sent to too few households to serve this purpose effectively. The ads were evidently sent out to test their potential to influence popular opinion. They covered a wide variety of topics, and Ebsen's campaign has been spending heavily on follow-up to gauge their effect on recipients.
Which one of the following most accurately expresses the conclusion drawn in the argument above?
A. Normally, political candidates send out campaign material to influence popular opinion.
B. The recent ads for Ebsen's campaign were sent to too few households to influence popular opinion effectively.
C. The recent ads for Ebsen's campaign were sent out to test their potential to influence popular opinion.
D. The recent ads for Ebsen’s campaign covered a wide variety of topics.
E. Ebsen’s campaign has been spending heavily on follow-up surveys to gauge the ads' effect on recipients.
C. The recent ads for Ebsen's campaign were sent out to test their potential to influence popular opinion.
This is the conclusion. The word "evidently" signals that the author is drawing an inference. She doesn't know for certain that the ads were a test. She's piecing together the evidence (too few households, wide variety of topics, heavy spending on follow-up surveys) and concluding that the most plausible explanation is that the campaign was testing the ads' effectiveness.
Advertising agencies are often wrongly criticized for causing people to desire, and thus purchase, products they do not really need. People actually buy what they buy mainly because they believe the product will satisfy their desires—a belief that, admittedly, it is the purpose of advertising agencies to induce. It is clear then that the desires that people believe products will satisfy _______.
Show answer24.
Which one of the following most logically completes the argument?
A. can be classified as needs if they actually prompt people to make a purchase
B. are created by false, but not by true, advertising claims
C. will rarely be satisfied by the purchases they prompt
D. are exploited rather than created by advertisers
E. are generally what induce people to believe claims made by advertisers
D. are exploited rather than created by advertisers
This accurately describes the core difference between the “wrong” and “right” accounts as presented by the author. People wrongly think advertisers cause people to desire products that they didn’t used to want, when really advertisers take pre-existing desires and aim them at specific products.
Essayist: Commitment to relationships or careers is commonly held to be virtuous. But all commitments should be seen as morally neutral. After all, what one is committed to might be either good or bad; for example, commitment to a relationship that benefits none of the people involved deserves no praise. Often, commitment is nothing more than involvement that has outlasted its original justification.
Which one of the following principles, if valid, most helps to justify the essayist's reasoning?
A. Any commitment that is morally neutral either has outlasted its original justification or deserves no praise, or both.
B. Commitment to a relationship or career is virtuous when, but only when, the relationship or career is good.
C. If a commitment deserves no praise, then that commitment is morally neutral.
D. If a commitment has outlasted its original justification, then it cannot be virtuous.
E. All commitments are morally neutral if there are any commitments that are undeserving of praise.
E. All commitments are morally neutral if there are any commitments that are undeserving of praise.
According to (E), if there is at least one commitment that is undeserving of praise, then we can conclude that “all” commitments are morally neutral. We know from a premise that some commitments deserve no praise — that triggers this rule. So, based on (E), we can conclude that all commitments are morally neutral.
Laurie: In a democracy, public art should bring people together either by expressing a consensus on a subject or by helping people to reconcile their differences and to recognize that no single opinion is definitive. Since contemporary public art creates only acrimony, it has failed in its task.
Elsa: If people hold radically different opinions, public art should emphasize that. No art form can do the impossible, which is what you are asking for.
Laurie's and Elsa's statements provide the most support for holding that they disagree about
A. what types of public art are most characteristic of contemporary democracies
B. whether it is possible in a democracy to create public art that people with radically different opinions can enjoy and support
C. what the criterion of success for public art in a democracy should be
D. whether contemporary public art creates only acrimony
E. whether it is wise for contemporary public art to help achieve a consensus on a subject
C. what the criterion of success for public art in a democracy should be
This is a point of disagreement. Laurie thinks public art should bring people together. Elsa thinks public art should emphasize radically different opinions, and that it’s impossible for public art to bring people together.