Carbohydrate
what are the elements of a carb?
Carbon
Hydrogen
Oxygen
(in a 1:2:1 ratio)
what are the elements of a lipid?
(Examples?)
Carbon
Hydrogen
Oxygen
with long chains with lots of H but little Oxygen
(fats, oils and waxes)
what are the elements of a protein?
Carbon
Hydrogen
Oxygen
Nitrogen
Functions of six elements in Ionic forms (electrolytes) in Milk:
Calcium, Phosphorus; Potassium;
Chloride ; Sodium; Magnesium.
Calcium (Ca2+): Builds strong bones and teeth and supports nerve and muscle function.
Phosphorus (phosphate ions (PO₄³⁻): Works with calcium to strengthen bones and support tissue growth.
Potassium (K+): Regulates fluid balance, muscle contraction, and blood pressure.
Cl (Cl-): Works with sodium to maintain osmotic pressure and fluid balance.And for producing hydrochloric acid (stomach acid) for digestion.
Sodium (Na+): Maintains systemic fluid balance and blood volume.
Magnesium: neuromuscular function and supports bone development.
physical processes or chemical reactions?
Ice cream making?
Cheese making?
Butter making?
Yogurt making?
P, C, P, C
what are the monomers in a carb?
monosaccharides
(simple sugars)
What type of molecule is produced when a glycerol molecule is combined with 3 fatty acids?
Triacylglycerol or Triglycerol
Ester (Alcohol + acid --> Esterification)
What are the monomers of a protein? (name and number)
amino acids joined by peptide bonds; 20 different amino acids
Main Vitamins in Cow milk
Vitamin A, D
Vitamin B2, B3, B5, B12
Describe the three main ways to pasteurize cow's milk
Low-Temperature Long-Time (LTLT) / Vat Pasteurization: 145°F (63°C) for 30 minutes before being rapidly cooled. This traditional batch method preserves the natural flavor and raw cream qualities well, and is often used for smaller batches or home pasteurization.
High-Temperature Short-Time (HTST) / Flash Pasteurization: 161°F (72°C) for 15 seconds. This is the most common commercial method used for refrigerated milk in grocery stores because it kills harmful pathogens quickly while maintaining fresh taste and nutrients.
Ultra-High Temperature (UHT) / Ultra-Pasteurization: 275°F to 300°F (135°C to 150°C) for just 2 to 3 seconds. When combined with sterile, airtight packaging, this method creates a shelf-stable product that does not need refrigeration until it is opened.
what are the polymers in a carb?
polysacharides
fatty acid chains that contain all single bonds between the carbon atoms are called
saturated fats
What are the polymers of a proteins?
polypeptide
Structures and functions of the 6 Vitamins
Vitamin A (Retinol): β-carotene ( its precursor form) -vision and immune
Vitamin D (Calciferol): A fat-soluble secosteroid for calcium and phosphorus absorption
Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin):cellular energy production
Vitamin B3 (Niacin): growth, and energy
Vitamin B5 (Pantothenic Acid): energy
Vitamin B12 (Cobalamin): red blood cell formation, DNA synthesis, and maintaining nervous system integrity
What is the main protein in cheese? what is the key step of making it?
The main protein in cow's milk cheese is casein.
Lemon Juice (Acid Coagulation): Creates small, fragile, and delicate curds.
Rennet (Enzymatic Coagulation): Creates one large, strong, stable, and elastic curd.
Sugar in Cow Milk? Amount, quantity and structure?
Lactose: A disaccharide (double sugar) composed of one glucose molecule and one galactose molecule linked by a β-(1–4) glycosidic bond. 4.7% of total milk weight.
What is common to all unsaturated lipids?
at least one double bond (Carbon Carbon)
What is an Amino Acid?
3 carbon chain with a carboxylic acid and an ammine group
What is the main component in cow milk?
The main component in cow milk is water, which makes up about 87% of its total composition.
What is buttermilk?
Traditional buttermilk: The thin, leftover liquid after churning cream into butter, which naturally sours from bacteria.
Cultured buttermilk: The modern grocery store version made by adding lactic acid bacteria to low-fat or skim milk, similar to how yogurt is made.
Functions of Lactose?
primary energy source
When digested, an enzyme in the small intestine called lactase breaks lactose down. Glucose provides immediate cellular energy.
Galactose supports biological processes. It is a vital component for creating glycolipids and glycoproteins, which help build nerve cell membranes and support brain development.
Low Glycemic Index: Lactose digests more slowly than simple sugars, preventing rapid spikes in blood sugar.
what are the functions of a lipid?
long term energy storage
Top 3 main proteins in Cow milk? And their functions?
Casein makes up about 80% of total protein in cow's milk. It forms large colloidal structures called micelles and carries essential minerals like calcium and phosphorus to the body. It digests slowly, which provides a steady release of amino acids and helps you feel full.
Beta-Lactoglobulin is the most abundant whey protein in cow's milk, ~50% of whey fraction.It binds and transports various small hydrophobic molecules (like retinol or vitamin A). It is rich in branched-chain amino acids (BCAAs) which aid in muscle recovery and growth.
Alpha-Lactalbumin is a major whey protein ~20% of the whey: a crucial biological cofactor for the synthesis of lactose (milk sugar). It is also high in essential amino acids and supports infant digestion and immunity.
What happens during transformation of milk into yogurt?
Lactic acid fermentation:
Bacterial Inoculation: Starter cultures containing Streptococcus thermophilus and Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus are added to warm milk.
Sugar Splitting: The bacteria use the enzyme lactase to split lactose (milk sugar) into simple sugars: glucose and galactose.
Energy Extraction: Through the metabolic pathway of glycolysis, these simple sugars are broken down into pyruvate, yielding cellular energy (ATP) for the bacteria.
Lactic Acid Generation: The bacteria convert pyruvate into lactic acid as a metabolic byproduct
Difference of Milk Allergy vs. Lactose Intolerance
Many people with milk allergies react most strongly to casein. cause severe reactions like hives, swelling, vomiting, or life-threatening anaphylaxis.
Lactose Intolerance: A digestive issue, not an immune response. It happens when the body lacks enough of the enzyme lactase to break down milk sugar (lactose), causing gas, bloating, and cramps, but no allergic reaction or danger to life.