Mental Imagery
Describe the difference between the analog and propositional views.
Analog Viewpoint - Mental images are analogous to pictures in the head that preserve spatial properties
Propositional Viewpoint - Mental images are abstract, non-pictorial concepts similar to linguistic descriptions
Explain the classical view of categorization and the concept of family resemblance.
Classical View - category membership is all or none
Family Resemblance - members of a category have a family resemblance to each other
What are the modus ponens and modus tollens rule of logic?
Modus ponens - if P then Q → P → Therefore Q
Modus tollens - If P then Q → Not Q → Therefore Not P
What is the anchoring effect?
The anchoring effect is when our judgements are influenced and affected by a reference point
Describe the difference between phoneme, morpheme, word, phrase, and sentence.
Phoneme - Smallest unit of sounds that distinguishes one word from another
Morpheme - Smallest language unit that carries meaning
Word - Complete, discrete unit of meaning in a language
Phrase - Group of two or more words functioning as a meaningful unit within a sentence
Sentence - Coherent sequence of words
According to the lecture, the Analog Viewpoint suggests that mental imagery exhibits "functional equivalence." What does this term mean?
Mental images function exactly like perception
Mental images are functionally identical to verbal descriptions
Mental images behave in ways similar to real objects despite not being identical to perception
Mental images serve the same purpose across all individuals
C
Explain how categories are represented in prototype theory? What is meant by “graded membership” in a category?
We take the average of all members in the category and use that as the model
Graded Membership: objects closer to a prototype are “better” members of the category than objects further from the prototype
Describe the difference between inductive and deductive reasoning.
Inductive Reasoning - Reasoning that constructs or evaluates general propositions that are derived (observed) from specific examples; Probable guesses based on prior evidence; is not always correct because we might not always have all the examples
Deductive Reasoning - The process of reasoning from one or more general statements (premises) to reach a logically certain conclusion; Conclusions follow directly from premises using rules of logic; Guaranteed to be valid (and also guaranteed to be true if the premise is true); We will always come to the correct conclusion because we are following the proposition and principles
List the five factors that influence the availability heuristic.
Five factors that influence the availability heuristic are recency, frequency, extremity, vividness, and negativeness.
Recent - how recently did the event occur?
Frequent - how often does it occur?
Extreme - how significant was the event?
Vivid - how detailed can you remember that event?
Negative - did the event illicit strong feelings?
Describe the difference between prejudice, stereotypes, and discrimination.
Prejudice (affect) - An unjustifiable negative attitude toward an outgroup or toward members of that outgroup
Stereotypes (cognitive) - The positive or negative beliefs that we hold about the characteristics of social groups
Discrimination (behavior) - Unjustified negative behaviors toward members of outgroups based on their group membership
In Kosslyn's size scaling experiment, participants imagined either a rabbit next to an elephant or a rabbit next to a fly. What was measured, and what did the results reveal about mental imagery?
2 groups of participants:
Some participants told to imagine a rabbit next to an elephant
Others told to imagine a rabbit next to a fly
Results: People zoom in or zoom out in mind’s eye
It took longer to respond to rabbits paired with elephants than to rabbits paired with flies.
The imagined rabbit was smaller in “elephant” reference condition, so it takes time to mentally zoom in to describe its features.
No zooming is required when the rabbit is next to fly, because you already are zoomed in.
Explain how categories are represented in exemplar theory?
Exemplar Theory: mentally taking in each experience or encounter with members of a category.
The category “bird” is represented by individual memories of experiences with birds
When we categorize something, we compare it to one or more exemplars retrieved from memory and decide the category based on the most similar exemplars.
Which of the following is an example of "Denial of the Antecedent" error?
If it rains, then the ground gets wet. It's raining. Therefore, the ground gets wet.
If it rains, then the ground gets wet. The ground is wet. Therefore, it's raining.
If it rains, then the ground gets wet. The ground is not wet. Therefore, it's not raining.
If it rains, then the ground gets wet. It's not raining. Therefore, the ground is not wet.
D
If P, then Q. Not P, therefore not Q.
Arguments of this form are invalid
What is the difference between availability and representativeness heuristics?
Availability Heuristic - Relying on availability as a substitute for frequency
Representativeness Heuristic - Relying on resemblances as a substitute for probability
List the three main perspectives on where intergroup bias comes from.
1) Economic Perspective: competition with outgroups over scarce/valuable resources.
2) Motivational Principle: identification with an ingroup, frustration or social identity.
3) Cognitive Perspective: we take mental shortcuts in our thinking patterns.
Which of the following results would support the propositional code theory?
It takes longer to mentally scan longer distances on a memorized map
Reaction time increases with the angle of rotation for 3D objects
It takes longer to identify details when mentally "zoomed out" on an image
People cannot discover a second interpretation of an ambiguous figure from memory
D
Explain the hierarchical network model.
Hierarchical Network Model: semantic memory is organized into a series of hierarchical networks.
Major concepts represented as nodes
Features/properties associated with each concept
Broad categories at top and then gets more specific as we travel down
More specific concepts are nested in broader concepts.
A syllogism consists of:
One premise and one conclusion
Two premises and one conclusion
Three premises and no conclusion
Multiple conclusions from one premise
B
When are people MORE likely to consider base rates?
When no stereotypical information is provided
When judgments are deliberative and effortful
When base rates are extreme
When base rates are presented as frequencies rather than probabilities
All of the above
What is the Realistic Group Conflict Theory, and what study supports this?
Realistic Group Conflict (RGC) Theory - When groups compete for limited resources, the groups experience conflict, prejudice, and discrimination.
Robbers Cave Study - boys were divided into two groups and competed against one another, creating hostility between the two
Which of the following best represents the conclusion of the imagery debate according to the lecture?
The analog theory was definitively proven correct
The propositional theory was definitively proven correct
There is substantial evidence for the analog view, but the propositional theory has not been completely ruled out
Both theories have been rejected in favor of a new hybrid model
C
How does the Updated Associative Network Model address the limitations of the Hierarchical Network Model? List at least two ways.
1) Concepts and properties are trained equally and can be accessed directly.
Previous model suggested that properties are contained within concept categories (to retrieve “can fly,” you need to first access “bird”).
2) Not all properties are linked to concepts; they are also linked directly to other properties.
Ex.] “fly” can be directly linked to “wings”
3) Node connections contain different lengths, which reflect strength of association between them
The closer the distance in the network, the stronger the association between them
In the Wason Card Task with the rule "If someone drinks beer, then he/she must be 21 or over," which cards would you need to flip to test this rule? Explain your reasoning.
You need to flip over the cards beer (P) and 19 (not Q), because you’ll need to see what the age is on the beer card and what drink is on the 19 card to see if there are inconsistencies. Beer is modus ponens, and 19 is modus tollens.
List and describe the 5 main properties of language.
Arbitrariness - All human languages have their unique way of classifying real entities and of associating sounds with concepts.
Discrete infinity - Refers to the property by which language can construct an infinite variety of expressions of thoughts, imaginations, and feelings from just a few discrete elements (phonemes).
Structural dependence - Language is governed by rules that impart meaning and define which combinations of elements are acceptable and which are not.
Displacement - Language can overcome the limitations of space and time & Ability to communicate about people, things, and events that are not present (displaced in space, time, etc.)
Organized at multiple levels (Hierarchical structure) - Different levels, with each level composed of other sublevels
Phonemes: sounds we produce
Morpheme: unit of meaning; combination of phonemes
Start with basic information, move up to complex sentences
How does Social Identity Theory differ from Realistic Group Conflict Theory in explaining the origins of prejudice?
Social Identity Theory: a person’s self-concept and self-esteem are derived from personal identity and ingroup status/accomplishments.
Different from RGC theory, because it suggests that prejudice happens naturally and automatically when groups form.
In other words, it does NOT require competition.