Scope & Boundaries of Science
Karl Popper argued that for a theory to be considered genuinely scientific, it must be capable of being proven false, a concept known by this term.
What is falsifiability?
This is a tentative, testable prediction or explanation for a phenomenon that forms the initial starting point of an empirical scientific investigation.
What is a hypothesis?
Thomas Kuhn famously coined this phrase to describe a fundamental change in the overarching concepts, theories, and practices of a scientific discipline.
What is a paradigm shift?
This type of reasoning moves from specific, repeated observations of the natural world to generate broad, generalized laws.
What is inductive reasoning (or induction)?
This psychological effect occurs when a patient experiences a real improvement in their condition purely due to their expectation that an inert, fake treatment will work.
What is the placebo effect?
This term describes a discipline or claim that masquerades as legitimate science but fails to adhere to a rigorous scientific method, such as astrology.
What is pseudoscience?
These simplified, idealized representations of reality are used by scientists to understand complex systems, though they inherently leave out certain details.
What are models?
This element of the TOK framework questions whether a scientist bears a moral obligation for how their discoveries, such as nuclear fission, are ultimately applied.
What is Ethics?
This TOK concept highlights that our observations are never completely neutral, because they are always influenced by the existing theories and frameworks we hold.
What is theory-laden observation?
Coined to describe trends in fields like economics, this phrase refers to the desire of non-physical disciplines to use complex math purely to look as rigorous as the natural sciences.
What is physics envy (or mathiness)?
This is the primary target of the Natural Sciences AOK—to observe, model, explain, and predict phenomena occurring in this specific domain.
What is the natural (or physical) world?
This critical process involves independent experts evaluating a paper's methodology and validity before it can be published in a scientific journal.
What is peer review?
This 19th-century biological theory fundamentally shifted the scientific paradigm by explaining how species develop over time through natural selection.
What is the theory of evolution?
This term describes a property or phenomenon that cannot be seen or predicted by looking at individual components, but appears only when the system interacts as a whole.
What is emergence (or an emergent property)?
This collective agreement among the global scientific community signifies that a particular theory or model is currently accepted as the most accurate explanation available.
What is scientific consensus?
This logical problem arises in science when we assume that because a pattern has held true in past observations, it will strictly hold true in the future.
What is the problem of induction?
This core requirement means that an independent research team must be able to achieve the exact same experimental results using the same methodology.
What is replicability (or reproducibility)?
This distortion happens when researchers or scientific journals favor publishing studies with positive, clear-cut results over those with negative or null results.
What is publication bias?
This philosophical stance assumes that a real, physical universe exists entirely independent of human thoughts, observations, or perceptions.
What is realism (or scientific realism)?
This term describes research or technologies (like genetic editing or nuclear physics) that can be used for both beneficial civilian applications and harmful military weapons.
What is dual-use research?
Science often operates on this philosophical principle, which states that when presented with competing explanations, the simplest one requiring the fewest assumptions is preferred.
What is Occam's razor (or the principle of parsimony)?
This ideal standard describes scientific observations or data points that remain free from personal feelings, biases, or cultural interpretations.
What is objectivity?
When human subjects are utilized in scientific or medical trials, this legal and ethical benchmark requires that participants fully understand all associated risks before taking part.
What is informed consent?
When analyzing scientific data, this common error occurs when a researcher mistakes a regular, coincidental correlation between two variables for this direct cause-and-effect link.
What is causation?
This socio-political barrier can restrict the progress of scientific knowledge when political bodies or corporations intentionally hide, alter, or block the publication of data.
What is scientific censorship (or political suppression)?