Richards (2003)
Richards (1983)
Burns (1998)
Levis & Grant (2003)
100
Listening that builds meaning from small parts: sounds, then words, then sentences, then meaning.
Bottom-up listening
100
Richards's three levels of planning: what we believe, how we plan, and what we do in class.
Approach, design and procedure
100
Teaching speaking by practising small parts on their own, with controlled activities like drills.
Direct (controlled) approach
100
The single sounds of a language: consonants and vowels.
Segmentals
200
Listening that uses what you already know to guess and then check the meaning.
Top-down listening
200
The small, separate abilities that together make up listening.
Micro-skills
200
Teaching speaking through real communication tasks, like discussions and role plays.
Indirect (transfer) approach
200
Features that go over many sounds: stress, rhythm and intonation.
Suprasegmentals
300
The knowledge we already have about usual situations, which helps us understand what we hear.
Schema
300
Short, joined-together forms of words that we use in fast speech.
Reduced forms
300
Help from the teacher that is strong at first and is slowly taken away.
Scaffolding
300
Short groups of words that belong together, with a small pause between the groups.
Thought groups
400
Talk whose main purpose is to build and keep friendly relationships with people.
Interactional talk
400
A rhythm where strong syllables come at regular times and weak syllables get squeezed between them.
Stress-timed rhythm
400
Talk whose main purpose is to get goods or services, like buying or booking something.
Transactional encounter
400
Extra stress on a word to show that it is different from something else.
Contrastive focus
500
Being easy for listeners to understand, even if you have an accent.
Intelligibility
500
The speaker's real purpose or intention behind what they say.
Illocutionary force
500
The study of how people take turns and organise talk in real conversations.
Conversation analysis
500
Short sounds a listener makes, like "umm hmm" or "yeah", to show they are following.
Backchannel sounds
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