Level One Questions
What was the purpose of the Sykes-Picot Agreement?
This agreement, written by Mark Sykes (British) and Francois Georges-Picot (French) in 1916, proposed definitions for future spheres of influence and control in the Middle East. This agreement was signed prior to the end of the war and was a secret treaty between Britain and France, with assent from Russia and Italy. It essentially divided the Middle East (from the Ottoman Empire) between these powers.
What was the influence of the Wafd Party on Egyptian society?
The Wafd Party was formed as a delegation to support the nationalist movement and it became one of the most popular and influential parties of the time. It helped organize the people and give them something to look up to. As a liberal political party, it ignited a lot of outrage among students and common workers following the British exile. Essentially, it gave the people a motivation to believe in and fight for themselves.
Evaluate the effects of the McMahon-Hussein Correspondence on Arab opinions of British involvement in the Middle East.
Primarily, the McMahon–Hussein Correspondence is a series of letters that were exchanged between Sir Henry Hussein and Sherif Hussein of Mecca during World War I. Britain had agreed to recognize the creation of an independent Arab state after the war ended in exchange for their immediate support against the Ottoman Empire. However, although the Arabs upheld their end of the bargain with the Arab Revolt - an uprising in 1918 that resulted in the Arabs capturing several key areas, such as the ports of Jiddah, Yanbu and Rabegh, thus allowing the British to advance - Britain did not support the creation of an independent Arab state after the war. Moreover, they chose to uphold the Sykes-Picot Agreement, which divided this Arab land between the Allied forces rather than allowing the people to control it themselves. As a result, the overall Arab opinion on British involvement shifted to the negative and eventually served as a motivation for pan-arabism since the people wanted to govern themselves with no outside influence or interference.
How did the British and Palestinians respond to Jewish immigration?
British: Originally, they tried to ignore it and soothe tensions in meaningless ways. However, after seeing the violence increase with no end in sight, they agreed to the Palestinian demands for a limitation to be placed on Jewish immigration and passed the White Paper of 1939 following the 1936-1939 Arab Revolt.
Palestinians: Reacted in anger and resentment because they were losing their homes and their jobs to the refugees. These feelings led to riots and violence between the groups and culminated in the 1936-1939 Arab Revolt.
Describe the impact of Ataturk’s policies on Turkish society.
Ataturk revolutionized modern Turkey with a broad range of reforms (almost unparalleled to any other country). Many people admire him as a pioneer of national liberation and he is even honored as a peacemaker who upheld the principles of humanism. In terms of society, his policies had a huge impact in many areas of the society:
Legally: Abolish religious laws and introduced a secular system of jurisprudence.
Socially: Religion became a matter of individual conscience and allowed the religions to live together in harmony.
Economy: Led to agricultural expansion, industrial growth, and technological advancement (within a decade, the gross national product increased by 5).
Language: Changed the Arabic script with the Latin alphabet, thus overhauling both the culture and education system in Turkey.
Essentially, Ataturk’s policies completely revamped Turkish society.
What was the Arab Revolt?
As a result of the McMahon-Hussein Correspondence, Arab forces led a military uprising against the Ottoman Empire from June 1916 to October 1918. The aim of the result was to create a single, unified, and independent Arab state that would stretch from Aleppo (Syria) to Aden (Yemen). The British had promised to recognize the authority of this state in exchange for support against the Ottoman Empire. However, although this revolt was successful in terms of pushing back the Ottomans and gaining significant lands (such as the ports of Jiddah, Yanbu and Rabegh) that would allow the British to take advantage of the Ottoman’s divisions and eventually win the war, the Arabs failed to achieve unified independence. Basically, they had a military victory but not a political one.
To what extent did British influence in Egypt affect the increase in nationalistic sentiments?
For a long time, Egyptian nationalism has been linked to a feeling of resentment against the British for their interference in the country and in the Middle East. For example, in 1919, the British imposed wartime deprivations in terms of food and supplies on the Egyptians, thus causing nationalistic sentiments to reach a new peak in popularity. As a result of Britain's continuing occupation of Egypt, nationalism became focused on ending British colonial rule (with some support from Liberals and Socialists in Britain). Therefore, it could be said that British influence played a large role in furthering Egyptain nationalism as it only strengthened the country’s desire to have autonomy.
With respect to specific examples, briefly examine the territorial and political impact of the mandate system.
In Central/Eastern Europe, empires (German, Russian, Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman) were destroyed and the land was used to create some new states (Austria, Poland, Czecholoslovakia, Hungary, Yugoslavia, etc). However, it also created the mandate system, which divided the Ottoman Empire and the German colonies into classes (A, B, and C) with respect to how “developed” they were.
A - Ready for independence in near future - Palestine, Syria, Lebanon, Iraq, Transjordan.
B - Needed more time - mainly German colonies in Africa.
C - Underdeveloped - German colonies and Southwest Africa.
Basically: politically, it undermined the abilities and actions of the local people as well as increased the power of some countries; territorially, it redrew all the borders with no respect for cultural/ethnic tensions and led to a lot of problems.
Describe the aims and policies of Ataturk.
His policies were referred to as Ataturk’s Reforms and they were a series of political, cultural, social, religious, and political changes designed to convert Turkey into a secular, modern nation-state. One of his primary beliefs was that Turkish society would have to westernize in several areas in order to advance itself politically and culturally. This began with the modernization of the constitution - replacing the Constitution of 1921 with the Constitution of 1924 - as well as the adaptation of European laws to the Turkish state. However, although Ataturk adopted many western values in his reforms, he did wish to remain with the spirit of Turkey and its traditional values. For instance, there was a government-funded social campaign “Citizen, speak Turkish!” which was designed to encourage non-Turkish speakers to speak Turkish in public areas.
Describe the economic, political, and social developments in Egypt.
Economic: With British influence, Egypt increased its capital gain by becoming more of a trading hub with the help of the Suez Canal (focused more on production and exportation). They also opened Bank Misr in 1920 as the first wholly Egyptian Bank in an effort to invest national savings toward economic and social development.
Social: Nationalism and pharonism became large motivators for the development of the people. The Wafd Party helped bring the gap between the aristocracy and the poor, allowing the country to unify as a common force. There was also, later on, the change in societal norms as women began to gain more rights and the young generations became more involved in politics.
Political: There was the emergence of political parties such as the Wafd Party as well as of popular leaders including Faud I and Nasser. This allowed the government to become more popular and truly mobilize against the British.
Explain the purpose and creation of the mandate system.
The mandate system was created by the League of Nations (but really the Allied Powers) in order to divide the conquered lands of the Ottoman Empire and the German colonies between the victorious Allied Powers (huh that’s funny). Although its purpose was to stop the cycle of war and disputes over land by appropriating and dividing the lands, it was not exactly the “sacred trust of civilization” that was promised. The goal was encouraging the development of each mandate toward eventual independence as the new mandatory power would help the people of the mandate learn how to govern themselves following the collapse of their previous ruling power.
Examine the successes and failures of Ataturk’s policies in Turkish society.
Many people have argued over the effectiveness of Ataturk’s policies in modernizing Turkey: they felt that the pace of change was too rapid as he had effectively abolished centuries-old traditions. Another problem was that the urban elite benefited in comparison to the generally illiterate inhabitants of the rural countryside - in the rural areas, religious sentiments (which were changed to a policy of state secularism) and customary norms were stronger than in the urban areas.
Successes: Most of the population was willing to accept the reforms; successfully implemented most of his measures.
Failures: Abolished traditions in haste to modernize; rural areas suffered more than urban; had trouble/controversy in his religious policies.
To what extent did British policy regarding Jewish immigration act as an instigator for further conflict between the Jews and Arabs?
Following the 1936-1939 Arab Revolt, the British passed the White Paper of 1939 which declared a restriction on Jewish immigration. However, although this action pleased the Palestinians, the Jews were outraged and Zionist groups rejected the White Paper and began a campaign of attacks on both Palestinians and goverment property. The right-wing militant group Irgun began formulating plans for a rebellion to evict the British and create an independent Jeiwsh state. In February 1939, they coordinated a bombing campaign which killed 38 Arabs and wounded another 44. This only caused the violence to continue and heightened tensions, which were paused as a result of WWII, but definitely affected the later Arab-Israeli conflicts.
Describe the economic, social, and political developments found in the Palestinian mandate.
Economic: Although the economy was always centered on agriculture, this caused problems when the Jews arrived since they bought Palestinian land for their own use (conflict of economic interest).
Social: The most obvious change was the increase of Jews (up to 30% of the population by 1938) in Palestine, leading to tensions between the two groups (riots, revolts, violence). The Jews also brought their own organizations such as their own assembly (Va’ad Leumi) or security unit (Haganah). The problem of immigration led to competitions for jobs and other such things.
Political: The most significant politics were the Sykes-Picot Agreement, the McMahon-Correspondence, and the Balfour Declaration. Other than that, political parties emerged, such as the Independence Party of Palestine (1939), in order to fight for their rights.
Examine the attempts at modernization seen in Egypt.
Economic: Creation of Bank Misr as a result of distrust in Europeans as well as in order to boost their own economy by not using outside sources. This can also be seen in the 1950s with the Suez Canal (nationalized to collect tolls) and in the 1960s with the Aswan High Dam (generate power supply and control damage of water).
Political: Formation of political parties (Wafd party) and the brief creation of a new constitution - although it didn’t last, this showed how the Egyptians were attempting to become more modern by leaving behind their older policies to change their government.
Social: The nationalist movement showed how people wanted development and there was also the social change in women (became more outspoken and involved in protest) and youths/students (who organized several of their own demonstrations.
Examine the role of nationalism in Egypt.
Nationalism in Egypt first manifested in the 19th century with Pharaonism, which identified Egypt as being a unique and independent political unit in the world. Later on, in 1919, Egyptian nationalism reached its peak as a result of wartime deprivations imposed by the British. This idea of “us vs them” led to a lot of conflict between the Egyptians and the British and (to some extent) helped them gain independence. In the 1930s, Arab nationalism arose as a political force following the Arab-Israeli conflicts, but there still remained a strong regional attachment to Egypt. This was seen in the “Egypt first” policy that was first promoted by Nasser following the Six Day War of 1967 and Sadat later on.
What was the impact of Jewish immigration on the Palestinian society?
Although there were instances of Jewish immigration to Palestine (First Aliyah in 1881, Second Aliyah from 1904-1914) prior to the Balfour Declaration in 1917, it only increased in number after that. For example, between 1920-1939, the Jewish population in Palestine grew by over 320,000 people. When the Jewish people came, they often bought land from absentee non-Palestinian land-oweners and evicted the Palestinian famers who had worked there. This economic conflict led to a lot of problems and resulted in many riots and protests between the two groups. One example of this is the 1920 Jerusalem Riot, which erupted in the Old City of Jerusalem.
What personal stake did the Allies have in the creation of the mandate system?
Unfortunately, although the mandate system constituted two things - non-annexation and administration towards independence - that could have been good in theory, the entire system was manipulative. The League of Nations during that time truly only consisted of Allied Powers and the mandate system divided the conquered land majorly between the Allied Powers (huh that’s funny). Essentially, it could be said that their personal stake was their own involvement in dividing the land with the ultimate goal of increasing their own power (in terms of mandates and the resources/money they could provide).
Compare and contrast the motivations of the participants involved in the McMahon-Hussein Correspondence.
The two “primary” participants were Sir Henry Hussein (Britain) and Sherif Hussein of Mecca (Arabs). Their motivations are as follows:
McMahon: Worried that they would not be able to breach the Ottoman defenses; wanted forces to divide the Ottomans from the inside; saw the strategic value in this partnership.
Hussein: Unhappy with Ottoman control and their own inability to act in Arab interests; mistrusted the current rulers; wanted independence from Ottomans; wanted to rule his own people with autonomy.
Both: Felt as though this was the best option; wanted to hurt/attack the Ottoman forces and weaken their control; agreed to discuss the specific territorial disputes after the war.
How did the Sykes-Picot Agreement disregard the promises made in the McMahon-Hussein Correspondence?
The McMahon-Hussein Correspondence took place between 1915 and 1916, but the Sykes-Picot Agreement, although it was finally made public in December 1917, was also written during 1915-1916. The French government had been aware of the correspondence, but they were not aware that formal commitments had been made. Regardless, the British continued to fool Hussein by assuring him that the promises made by the British were still valid and that the Sykes-Picot Agreement was not a formal treaty. Essentially, although the British were aware of the promises they had made, they engaged in double-dealings in order to best further their own desires.
What were the aims and goals of the Wafd Party?
This was a nationalist political party that played an instrumental role in gaining Egyptian independence from Britain. It was organized by Saad Zaghul on 13 November 1918 and it established a permanent delegation of Egyptian people that demanded a voice during the peace conferences post WWI. Their aims were to achieve internal autonomy, a constitutional government, civil rights, and Egyptian control of the Sudan and the Suez Canal. Simply put, the main goal was the immediate termination of British occupation in Egypt.
What role did western influences play in the development in Egypt?
Western influences had a significant role in the political and social development of Egypt during this time. For instance, in terms of political development, there was renewed international support for their nationalist movement. This was caused by Woodrow Wilson's principle of self-determination and the new sentiments of anti-colonialism that were covering the globe. This later had the impact of the UN forcing the British and French to withdraw from the Suez Canal. Furthermore, in terms of social influences, western trends and fashion began to take hold among Egyptian women. This caused the younger generations to shift from the older traditions and wear clothes in popular fashions made by foreign tailors. Essentially, the role of western influences was in broadening the horizons of the people and changing general society.
To what extent did the Balfour Declaration lead to long-lasting tension between Arabs and Israelis?
Primarily, the Balfour Declaration was a public statement issued by Britain in 1917 announcing their support of the establishment of a “national home for the Jewish people” in Palestine. This declaration was the first public expression of support for Zionism by a major political power, and it was controversial in many ways: some had issues with the term “national home” as it was intentionally vague and others protested this state as it would affect the position of the local population of Palestine. However, regarding the two groups specifically, the Arabs were displeased they would be losing their land and the Jews felt as though they had a right to the land, thus leading to conflict between them. Therefore, since this document essentially began the initial conflict because it created a Jewish state in Palestine, it could be said that the Balfour Declaration was responsible for much of the tension between Arabs and Israelis.
Compare and contrast French and British administration in the mandate system.
France and Britain had divided the following mandates between them: Syria, Lebanon, Togoland, etc.
British: Primarily indirect rule; gave one local group control regardless of cultural differences (ex. Sunnis having power but being the minority); wanted to centralize the individual tribes through political and when necessary military rule.
French: Majorly direct civilian or military rule; silenced local political leaders and placed authority in a French high commissioner (ex. Faysal was dethroned in Damascus and control was transferred to the military unit); promoted regional and ethnic fragmentation with the goal of preventing a collective national identity.
Both: Worked to have the majority say/power in the mandate; used the military to control politics when needed.
How did western influences provide outside support for the nationalist movement in Egypt?
There were many European authors who wrote in support of the plight of the Egyptians, thus helping make people in Europe more sympathetic to their cause. For example, M. Vassie, a French journalist, wrote so much in support of the nationalist movement that the British deported him to prevent him from doing this. Another example involves an Italian book written by Emanual Baldi in 1921 which discussed Italians being killed in the 1919 protests. This gave Italians a first person perspective for the revolution, thus making the people of Egypt more realistic and their own struggles more sympathetic.