Basic Anatomical Elements
What means nearest to the point of reference or point of attachment?
Proximal
Name the four main types of tissue.
Epithelial, connective, muscular, nervous
The _________ is the space between two neurons into which a neurotransmitter is released.
synaptic cleft
What are the two parts of the autonomic nervous system (ANS) and what are their roles?
Sympathetic: prepares body for "fight or flight" responses
Parasympathetic: promotes "rest and digest" activities
Where does communication between two neurons occur?
synapse
The elbow is _____ to the shoulder, and the heart is ____ to the lungs.
Inferior
Medial
____ are muscles that move a structure, while _____ are muscles that oppose a movement.
Agonists, antagonists
Name two functions of the cerebral spinal fluid.
Cushions neural tissues
Nutrient delivery
Waste removal
Name the three sensory branches of the trigeminal nerve.
Opthalamic, maxillary, and mandibular
The _______ tract carries info from cerebrum to skeletal muscles, and the _______ tract carries info from cerebrum to the brainstem.
corticospinal
corticobulbar
Cells are the body’s ____________.
fundamental unit of structure and function
Name the three types of joints and their level of flexibility.
Synarthrodial/Fibrous – no mobility
Amphiarthrodial/Cartilaginous – limited mobility
Diarthrodial/Synovial – high mobility
Name the four lobes of the cerebrum and their general functions.
Frontal: executive function, motor planning, language production
Parietal: receives and integrates input from the senses, written comprehension
Occipital: visual perception
Temporal: auditory reception, language comprehension
Describe the spinal reflex arc.
A stimulus/response system that maintains a constant state of muscular tone
How it works: muscles spindles sense stretching, send information through gamma nerves to dorsal root of spinal cord, a signal is sent back from the ventral root for the muscle to contract
Contrast acquired apraxia of speech and childhood apraxia of speech.
Acquired apraxia of speech: can often occur with Broca’s aphasia, can result from a stroke, head injury, tumor, brain illness
Childhood apraxia of speech: present from birth, causes are not well understood, research has not been able to find evidence of brain damage or differences in these children, genetic factors may play a role
Describe erect anatomical position.
Body is erect, and palms, arms, hands, and face are forward.
What are two functions of epithelial tissue?
Acts as a barrier against hostile agents, such as infectious organisms (i.e., skin)
With cilia, can move unwanted substances out
Prevents dehydration and fluid loss
Lines glands and provides secretion
Describe wet and dry cerebrovascular accidents (CVAs) (including the two examples of dry CVAs and one example of wet CVA).
Dry: blood supply is cut off by plaque, blood clot, etc. (thrombosis -> foreign body that obstructs blood vessel + embolism -> obstruction of blood vessel by foreign body brought from blood flow)
Wet: artery or blood vessel breaks (aneurysm -> dilation or ballooning of blood vessel because of weak walls)
What is one difference between upper and lower motor neurons?
Upper motor neurons: responsible for conveying impulses for voluntary motor activity through descending motor pathways; originate in brainstem, and carry information down to the brainstem/spinal cord
Lower motor neurons: innervate skeletal muscle fibers directly; function as final common pathway (final link between CNS and skeletal muscles)
Describe the three structures of the neuron and their functions.
Soma (aka cell body): contains the nucleus
Dendrites: sends signals to the soma
Axon: sends signals away from the soma
Ventral and _____ are synonymous in humans, but ventral and _____ are synonymous in quadrupeds.
Dorsal and _____ are synonymous in humans, but dorsal and _____ are synonymous in quadrupeds
Anterior, inferior
Posterior, superior
Name and describe (i.e., what does it look like, is it voluntary or involuntary, and where is it found in the body) the three types of muscular tissue.
Striated muscle (aka skeletal muscle): striped appearance, VOLUNTARY contraction, found in limbs, neck, face, etc.
Smooth muscle (aka visceral muscle): sheet-like with spindle shaped cells, INVOLUNTARY contraction, found in digestive tract
Cardiac muscle: cells bound together in net-like fashion, somewhat striated appearance, INVOLUNTARY contraction, found in heart wall
Name the four main types of aphasia, the location of damage, and one key characteristic of each.
Broca’s aphasia: “nonfluent” or expressive aphasia, damage to Broca’s area in frontal lobes, speak in short phrases, relatively intact comprehension, may be accompanied by right sided weakness or paralysis
Wernicke’s aphasia: “fluent” or receptive aphasia, damage to Wernicke’s area in temporal lobes, impaired comprehension, speak in long utterances without meaning, not typically body weakness
Conduction aphasia: damage to arcuate fasciculus, good comprehension of speech, relatively fluent spontaneous speech, impaired ability to repeat utterances
Global aphasia: damage to Broca’s area, Wernicke’s area, and subcortex, comprehension and production both severely impaired
List the names and function (including sensory and motor component) of FOUR of the cranial nerves that are relevant for speech and hearing.
V (trigeminal): sensory to eyes, nose, face, meninges; motor to tongue and mastication muscles
VII (facial): sensory to tongue (taste), motor to face muscles (expression, tear glands, salivation)
VIII (vestibulocochlear): sensory for hearing and balance
IX (glossopharyngeal): sensory to tongue, pharynx, soft palate; motor to pharynx muscles and stylopharyngeus (gag reflex)
X (vagus): sensory to viscera (e.g. stomach, kidneys, liver, lungs, heart, mediates hunger and thirst); motor to larynx
XI (accessory): motor to pharynx, larynx, soft palate, neck (helpful in holding head up)
XII (hypoglossal): motor to strap muscles of neck and intrinsic/extrinsic tongue muscles (important for articulation, resonance, swallowing)
Name the five dysarthria types, which system/region is typically damaged, and one key characteristic.
Flaccid: lower motor neurons, muscle weakness
Spastic: upper motor neurons, increased muscle tone
Ataxic: cerebellum, incoordination
Hyperkinetic (dopamine excess): basal ganglia, involuntary movements
Hypokinetic (dopamine shortage): basal ganglia, reduced range of movement