People & Groups
Fidel Castro
Definition:Nationalist and social justice reformer. Castro aimed to run for congress in 1952 but 3 months prior to the election, Batista staged a coup turning Cuba into a dictatorship. With the legal channels blocked he took up arms in 1953 and was arrested but got released after 2 years. Castro with his brother Raul and Che Guevara would come into power in 1959 after a long struggle. Worked for a more socially just and egalitarian society, passed 100s of laws in first few months. Cut rents, lowered utility rates, limited landholdings/redistributed land/addressed land equity issues, higher wages, guaranteed full time employment (important in seasonal sugar industry), expanded social services. US was SUPER mad. Castro became the face of the revolution, ignited politics around the world. Stepped down from power in 2008.
Connections: Hugo Chavez (pres of Venezuela) LOVED Castro, many fears that Chavez would try to imitate him bc Chavez could not distinguish revolution & social transformation. Castro & Chavez bonded over shared values & hatred for US (Chavez anti-US rhetoric grew via Castro). Exchanged Venezuelan oil for Cuban security forces, doctors, experts. Cold War made LA prime for US intervention (US wanted to kill communism & exert neoimperialist control in LA). Cuba continues to face economic issues due to international isolation/lack of strong trade partners (especially after fall of USSR), now relies a lot on Venezuela. Connection to human rights, Castro wanted to create a society that emphasized the fulfilment of basic human rights/needs but Cuba also fails on some points. Cuba is not a democracy & does not offer free speech/right to protest, but has lots of social programs and is one of the most egalitarian societies in the world. Connect to land reform, how Castro established land reform laws & in the process angered a LOT of private owners (especially foreign owners).
Examples: "US Hegemony in Latin America during an Age of Challenges" reading by Peres Milani, "Cuba Revolution in the Balance?" reading by Harvey Kline, "The Nostalgia of Empire" reading by Louis Pérez
Democracy
Definition: A system of government by the whole population or all the eligible members of a state, typically through elected representatives. Democracy comes in many forms including full, semi, and illiberal.
Connections: 2/3 of LA accept democracy as the LEAST BAD government form but still do not trust in democratic systems & institutions. Support and satisfaction with democracy are split with majority of frustration centered on lack of progress re: social & economic issues. Leads to a misplaced nostalgia for authoritarianism. Civil liberties are fundamental to democracy- refer back to kinds of democracy (free and fair elections, civil rights). Indicators of democracy: free & fair elections, two party turnover in a row, leaders relinquish power gracefully.
Examples: Chileans have self-reported supporting democratic gov but being dissatisfied & distrustful of democracy in Chile. Due to this lack of empowerment (people don't feel represented in gov) they self-report as worse off economically than in reality. Majority of guatemalans are fine with authoritarian rule despite 40 yrs of democracy due to a weak rooted & corrupt system. Mexico protests bc president proposed to overhaul the INE (guarantees election integrity), experts therefore believe mexico heading toward less democracy (authoritarianism in disguise).
"Aló Presidente"
Definition: A television show created by President Hugo Chavez of Venezuela that aired every Sunday, it spoke on a new topic each week and showed the president in various parts of the country. In its earlier years, Alo Presidente primarily functioned as a platform for Chavez to connect directly with Venezuelans, offering assistance and showcasing the accomplishments of his government. The program often included segments where regular citizens sought help with personal issues which made the program seem highly interactive. However, over time, these segments were replaced with pre-recorded segments extolling Chavez’s leadership and the revolution. Alo Presidente shows the role of media professionals in shaping a leader’s public image. It aimed to create a direct dialogue between Chavez and the people, portraying him as a multifaceted leader and compounding his populist appeal.
Connections: Chavez was an image focused president rather than a results focused president- reference housing that was touted but never finished & connect to alo presidente. Alo presidente + giveaways + subsidies made Chavez appealing despite his obviously authoritarian regime (also any who opposed him got blacklisted).
Examples: "Broadcasting Populist Leadership" reading by Frajman
Prompt A (Parts 1 & 2)
Social revolution has been one of the hallmarks of Latin American history over the last century. We have looked at some triumphant ones in Mexico & Cuba along with a failed attempt in Colombia. What general issues would you say sparked these upheavals? How did the successful ones (Mexico & Cuba) deal with these problems once taking power? How would the Cuban Revolution impact the Latin American landscape in the 1960s? What part would the United States play in this revolutionary upheaval? Do you feel that the revolutionary option was justified in none, some, or all of these three cases?
Part 1: Think politically, economically and socially (descriptive response)
Politically: closed political systems (frustration with elite rule), foreign influence/presence, Mexico spark comes from Madero calling for a more open political system to give more voice to elites (arrested & ignites a civil war)
Economically: land concentration/land equity, neocolonialism (resentment of foreign owned railroads, mines, utilities), lack of development/infrastructure, oil boom that only benefited the top % of society, not only that some benefited more than others but that some benefited at the expense of others
Socially: Inequality and injustice what does it look like, poverty, lack of education and healthcare, social inclusion (lack of national cohesion)
Part 2: Descriptive response
Politically: They tend to be inclusive but not democratic, PRI example (semi democracy, free but not fair elections), authoritarianism (either disguised or outright)
Economically: Land reforms, state controlled economies, limited foreign economic involvement, Cuba promised year-round employment (huge in sugar industry)
Socially: More social services, Cuba literacy campaigns, subsidies, efforts to increase healthcare services etc, heightened sense of nationalism (Cuba & Mexico), Mexican revolution became mythologized in Mexican history (ignored the civil war portion of the revolution),
Prompt C (Parts 1 & 2)
The military has always played an important role in Latin America. Starting in the 1960s and lasting through the 1980s, military governments swept across the region. What explains this shift to authoritarian rule? How did these “bureaucratic authoritarian” regimes differ from the traditional military strongmen of the past?
Part 1: Think of foreign influence, cold war and how it interacts with the cuban revolution (Fidelismo and the threat of communism spreading). How did the U.S. support this to win this fight of communism? Zero sum game, U.S. did whatever they could to fight communism). The Doctrine of National Security is good to bring up here because it plays into the idea you need to support the military and feels that they are best equipped to protect the nation and they have to do it at all costs. Even if it involves human rights abuses it is still justified. Relate back to authoritarian rule where militaries felt strongest to fight subversion, guerilla groups were the leaders of subversion. Ex: Montenegro, groups set up to fight them and the U.S. trained ones (Contras). Shift from civil to military rule because the military would see itself as the only institution capable of defending the nation from outside threats, but also a duty to restore order to politics, economics, and society, even if it meant taking direct change of policy decisions and state mechanism.
Part 2: Traditional intervention, authoritarian and lay those out as plainly as you can. The kinds of intervention they do, traditional is more short term and authoritarian is more long term intervention. Look into violence and the level of it in each, traditional military and bureaucratic authoritarian, how the violence was justified to the level/degree.’Bureaucratic authoritatian’ regimes are defined as non-democratic governments composed of military officers. The military had transformed into a more professional, bureaucratic and powerful institution. In the past, the military had only entered politics temporarily when challenges arised, but now that the dangers seemed greater, it risked not only the status quo, but they felt it was necessary to the nation’s survival.
Evo Morales
Definition: First indigenous president of Bolivia (2006-2019). Worked to include indigenous groups in Bolivia (nat anthem in indigenous languages) and promised to protect indigenous peoples. Development plans came into conflict with indigenous land rights. Was ousted after an obviously sabotaged election in 2019 (removed term limits via courts to run for 4th term).
Connections: Connect to indigeneity in LA, the issue of representing indigenous groups when there are so many with widely different opinions on many issues. Corruption in LA, even the most charismatic, change-minded politicians can disappoint, leading to loss of confidence in democratic systems. Authoritarianism in disguise, morales considered a populist & leftist who appealed to many but changed laws to stay in power, created authoritarian rule under the guise of democracy. Removed term limits and sabotaged elections. Mid-2000s wave of left/center-left leaders in LA included Evo Morales. The "Pink Tide" a surprising resurgence given lack of wins in 80s & 90s + collapse of socialist model but explained by the tactics of the "new left".
Examples: "Populism and Its Authoritarian Tendencies" reading by Ben McKay, "Latin America's Shifting Politics" reading by Steven Levitsky
Amnesty Laws
Definition: laws passed after the resignation/removal of the military bureaucracies that granted them immunity/partial immunity for their crimes (human rights abuses).
Connections: General public wants accountability, however many argue that prosecution may trigger retaliation/unrest in the community. Calls for "truth" and honesty to facilitate reconciliation. Prosecution for crimes is tricky and takes a long time- justice is becoming more difficult to enact.
Examples: 1990s truth commissions, trial of the juntas (Argentina), "Full Stop Law" (Argentina), Brazilian amnesty laws upheld in 2010 by Brazilian supreme court (laws created by military), Victor Jara (singer arrested & killed in 1973 Chile)
Cold War
Definition: A battle of ideologies and proxy-wars between the capitalist and communist blocs (mostly US and USSR) from the end of WW2 until the fall of the USSR in 1992. During the Cold War, US support for military dictatorships revealed a pragmatic, albeit morally ambiguous, approach to combating communism. The Cold War increased social unrest across Latin America as the number of human rights violations increased.
Connections: Post-Cold War lessened fears of communism which leads to rise of left and center-left admins in LA. Cuban revolution & communist gov was HEAVILY propped up by USSR (Cuba in turn supported Venezuela). Connect to the rise of authoritarian military bureaucracies in LA bc of fear of communism + rising military strength led to coups. Cold War also gave US an excuse to meddle in LA affairs to "prevent communism"
Examples:
Prompt A (Parts 3-5)
Social revolution has been one of the hallmarks of Latin American history over the last century. We have looked at some triumphant ones in Mexico & Cuba along with a failed attempt in Colombia. What general issues would you say sparked these upheavals? How did the successful ones (Mexico & Cuba) deal with these problems once taking power? How would the Cuban Revolution impact the Latin American landscape in the 1960s? What part would the United States play in this revolutionary upheaval? Do you feel that the revolutionary option was justified in none, some, or all of these three cases?
Part 3: Analysis
Guerilla insurgences, Fidelismo, Oppression, lack of democracy, US role in suppressing this wave of revolutionary activity, Raegan and the contras, red scare (US & foreign), How cuba encouraged it, main key issues that are brought up with the demands for change (social justice issues, land reform etc.) How does foreign influences impact the country, national security doctrine and what that does to democracy
Part 4:
Supporting military regimes, threat of communism, how did they do this? What aid were they giving, what contributions into suppressing revolutionary wave (Raegan and the contras)
Part 5: Give your opinion, justify it. Note: When trying to justify it it doesn’t need to be an all or nothing can be nuanced (applies to one thing and not another), just make sure to provide reasoning
Prompt C (Part 3 & 4)
In what ways did the military during this time handle politics, the economy, and society as a whole?
Lean heavily into Timmerman’s book, socially there is violence and repression/oppression?
Talk about this politically: Reading went over how many authoritarian leaders are anti establishment making them quite populist (anti politics), leads to more individual leaders to rise and military leaders which threatens democracy. Military takeovers would close congresses and limit civil liberties and pass laws to legalize its rule as needed. Military officers would then fill public offices and manage selective large enterprises and moved in as a group or institution. Their emphasis on state security took priority over democracy and civil liberties through regulating political parties (if they even allowed them), supervised organizations, overseeing media and anything seen as potential threats.
Economically: Bring up Brazil and Chile and how they are doing economically (liberal Brazil, nationalist chile) pro industrialization and improve the economy- actually ran the economy into the ground. The need to strengthen the economy was seen as part of the military mindset. They thought a strong economy was vital to their national security mission, because without a strong economy, threats would multiply, therefore, they must advance their industry, technology, and communications. In Brazil, they supported heavy state industry by nationalizing oil refineries and began modest land reforms, and in Chile they took a private market approach to increase their economies.
Socially: idk. Can say they promoted something but the end result was different (democracy: free but not fair elections) create an image of a democracy but it wasn’t actually a democracy (semi democracy, illiberal democracy) it notes that there was suppression. Socially, they created an environment of terror where any challenge to the state or military rule was now seen as an act of rebellion or act of war. This created a siege mentality, where anyone was seen as a potential enemy (friend or foe). The military did mass arrests, kidnapping, torture, and murder as standard operating procedures in military regimes.
Does the return of democracy in the 1990s mean that authoritarianism is a thing of the past?
Opinion bit- from reading (talked about how in a democracy when problems aren’t solved immediately, that can lead to people becoming distrustful of democratic institutions, & risky environment to authoritarianism) harder to voice discontent with authoritarian regime vs democracy. If problems w/ corruption, economy, security lead to discontent w/ democracy & company. Sometimes nostalgia for authoritarianism (law & order in the good old days) can create new opportunities for authoritarianism. Creating stable democratic regimes has been a difficult task due to its shallow roots in Latin America, and there have been 155 major regime changes
Juan Perón
Definition: An Argentine populist politician elected in 1946 (to 1955). He would embark on the ‘third way’ (justicialismo) where social justice was his calling card. He led Argentina in a new direction where he took a corporate approach to society, each according to their need guided by a strong state . He was exiled for 18 years and kicked out of office by the military coup, however, in 1973 he returned as the savior of Argentina and won the presidency again (promptly died). Perónismo: all things to all people, look back on as a great leader and attracted many supporters from all sides.
Connections: Populism as a whole, how does populism frequently devolve into authoritarianism (either by democracy in disguise or via coup). The pitfalls of social spending w/o the money to back it up. Peron's presidency was the lead up to the military coup and "Prisoner w/o a name". Nationalism in LA
Examples: "Prisoner w/o a name"
NAFTA, North American Free Trade Agreement
Definition: Regional free trade agreement between the U.S, Mexico and Canada organized by George W Bush which became successful and increased trade from 297 billion in 1993 to 1.5 trillion in 2023. The U.S. imports the most from Mexico and exports second most to Mexico and first to Canada. The greatest issue of contention was the issue of agricultural exports between the U.S. and Mexico but it did diversify Mexico's economy and US foreign investment also increased significantly. Update in 2020 under USMCA agreement where Mexico agrees to changes in auto manufacturing, toughening up on some environmental labor standards.
Connections: ?
Examples: ?
Neo-colonialism (1/2 done)
Definition: Tactic used by US (and others) to exert influence over countries w/o official colonies.
Connections: Cold War, popular political topic (mexican revolution, bolivarianism, neopopulism, new left)
Prompt B (Part 1 & 2)
What were the general characteristics of populism?
Populism usually involves a leader that people find charismatic who advocates for ‘the people’ against elites, corporations, and foreign entities. They appeal directly to the masses, bypassing traditional parties. Populism is often skeptical of representative democracy and lean authoritarian. Through Latin American history, we have seen that populism is fueled by inequality and corruption. The phenomenon of populism promises something for everyone regardless of their class which makes it appealing to those in lower classes. Populism rejects both elite rule and socialism, calling for an organic society where everyone is brought together. Populism believes in corporate structure where group interests superseded individual interests. Due to this it calls for an all-inclusive society headed by a strong leader, causing a one party system. They condemn old elites on the basis that they sold out their nation and call for great state intervention. Economically, they push ideas of economic nationalism and taking back control of their economy and autonomy leading to diversification of economy and self sufficiency
what do you see as the ‘pros’ and ‘cons’ of these populist movements?
Populism had appeal to it due to it’s promise for everyone regardless of class/ Class inequality is a big issue in Latin America and populism tries to appeal to those who are less fortune, attempting to put them on more even ground. It appeals directly to the people by giving them an alternative of the gridlock of the past. Another pro of populism is that instead of letting society be controlled by elite rule, it calls for an organic society where everyone is brought together. With populism, it tries to appeal to the majority and collective interests, rather than individual ones that only benefit a small amount of people. As many people in Latin America’s urban centers struggled with the standard of living populism was able to appeal to works in urban centers such as students, factory workers, and groups of people whose voices are not as strongly represented. Populism gave giveaways such as minimum wage, pension for workers, and social welfare programs that help those of lower social classes.
However, with these benefits also came many consequences of populism. As mentioned, populism appealed to those of lower class and gave them many giveaways to help them. However, these immediate material benefits were only temporary and didn’t involve structural changes and policies that could keep its long-term stability. Some major downsides to populism had to do with it requiring expanding funding to continue these handouts. These programs and handouts weren’t suitable for the long-term since these benefits had to be paid for somehow, causing them to run out of cash to keep these programs running. Populism has a short shelf life considering they kept needing to expand to new groups and causes. Populism also usually had a lot of military involvement and relied on the military. They thought the military seemed independent apart from politics and represented the nation in collective interest rather than selfish interest. This can lead to corruption within governments, as we saw in Brazil with Vargas who lost a rigged election, but reform minded officers then staged a coup and got him into office. As seen with Vargas and other similar leaders, he would be expected to step down in office, but then staged a coup to keep himself in power and removed congress, which dismantled democracy in the region.
Prompt D (Parts 1 & 2)
In the last three decades, most of Latin America has enjoyed democracy and a level of economic growth. Still, many remain far from satisfied with either. Is democracy in the region always accepted as the “least bad” form of government (Churchill’s definition) – why or why not? Does authoritarianism still have its supporters?
Part 1:Many kinds of democracies, the kind of democracy can determine this answer. Democracy isn’t time tested, the benefits aren’t always clear, it can be limited, the support for democracy in theory is much greater then how it functions in reality. Some people can become dissatisfied with democracy when they feel their problems aren’t being taken care of. That’s how latin americans usually judge it, not how just political problems are solved but how their social problems are resolved. Talk about some of the pitfalls and risks associated with democratic government. Leans on lecture material
Part 2: Loyalty is on individuals and faith placed on them to solve problems instead of it being on a regime. When there is corruption there is an erosion in faith in democracy. A lot that can lead to authoritarianism In a democracy. it’s much easier to voice dissatisfaction in authoritarianism; there is suppression and military control.
Gen. Augusto Pinochet
Definition: Chilean general who ruled by military dictatorship (notable difference from the other military bureaucracies) from September 1973-1990. Came into power after overthrowing the democratically elected President Salvador Allende. Immediately closed congress, curbed civil liberties, purged universities of their leftist professors, and "cleansed the nation". 50,000 arrested, 3,000 killed, 1,000 disappeared. Cut services and subsidies. Economists called it the "Chilean miracle" but economic growth and stability came at the expense of the working class. An example of a neoliberal regime, refocused the economy on liberal exports.
Connections: National Security Doctrine, human rights, neoliberalism, truth commissions
Examples: //
Doctrine of National Security
Definition: A military ideology of protecting the nation at all costs from both external and internal enemies that prompted a series of coups in LA. The military felt they had a duty to protect the nation from the outside and inside. Military found themselves more qualified, better suited and able than elected officials to defend and protect the nation. They blamed civilian rule for corruption and incompetence and class warfare for ripping countries apart. This doctrine paved the way for military authoritarian regimes that would take over many regions in Latin America, leading to human rights violations during this military rule. (Prompted by fears of the Cuban revolution, a lot of overthrowing of regimes, protecting the nation at all costs used as justification of bureaucratic authoritarian regimes to take over. At that time the enemy became an internal enemy).
Connections: Can connect to Cold War. Talk about amnesty laws after the bureaucracies/prosecution of human rights violations. Expand on the logic for violating human rights.
Examples: Prisoner w/o a name
Land reform
Definition: Radical land redistribution in many states fell short (and brought US attention/intervention during the cold war). land redistributed was poor quality + govs didn’t have the financial or technical support. Most govs instead bought private land to redistribute it or handed out public land rather than forcibly dismantle large estate (didn't really solve the problem). Popular (occasionally violent) social revolutions throughout LA history- frequently a key political issue in leftist admins.
Connections: Mexican revolution, new left vs old left, talk about history of land in LA (connect to old haciendas, plantation, rural to urban migration spurred by lack of arable land/difficulty for peasant farmers)
Prompt B (Parts 3 & 4 not done)
how do the ‘neo-populists’ of recent years compare to those of earlier times?
does neo-populism promise new answers to old questions or just ‘more of the same?’
Prompt D (Parts 3 & 4)
Has neoliberalism fulfilled its promises to bring development and improve the economic reality for Latin Americans? What are the advantages and disadvantages of this economic model? In your opinion, have the answers been found to Latin America’s problems or is there room for a new approach?
Part 3: Consider whether export trade and foreign investment brought growth, maybe brought growth but not development. Consider poverty and how it looks, did it decline, ha sit declined and now it’s rising again. What does wealth distribution look like, income inequality.
Part 4:
Advantages: Increased trade, and what that means (diversifying exports, creates jobs) moderate growth, lower inflation, this model has given latin american countries more trade partners and fit more easily in neoliberal economy
Disadvantages: Small producers, generally good environment for them or does this competition push small producers out. Is it a stable economic model, based on demand and prices leading to dependent trade.
Your opinion for the last question and justify your answer.
FARC
Definition: Armed revolutionary force of Colombia Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias de Colombia. Lasted over 50 years and was the longest running deadliest insurgence in the Americas. Estimated 450,000 died in conflict 1985-2018 and 80% died were civilians. FARC had emerged as a byproduct of the factious nature in LA and was inspired by Cuban revolutions. FARC demanded land reform, better wealth distribution, and nationalizing strategic industries, however, attempted to overthrow Colombia’s system through brutal tactics on their own people. In June 2016, a ceasefire went into effect as they reached a formal peace agreement with the government and FARC.
Connections: Human rights, amnesty laws?, relate to other ongoing peace/reconciliation processes in LA, Petro (pres) peace implementation is slow-going -> connect to general loss of faith in democratic systems/leaders across LA
Examples: "Rebels Turned Narcos?" reading by José Gutiérrez
The New Left
Definition: Rise of the New Left (and New New Left) happened in the mid-2000s with a wave of left/center-left presidents/leaders. For example, Lula da Silvia (2003) Brazil, Evo Morales (2006) Bolivia, Michele Bachelet (2006) Chile, Venezuela (1999) Hugo Chávez. This was also called the "Pink Tide". By the mid-2000s ¾ of LA ruled by left/center-left leaders. A surprising turn considering lack of victories in 1980s and 1990s. Additionally the collapse of socialist model saw support slowly disappear along with the rise of neoliberalism seemed to end old leftist notion of state-run economies. So how did it come back? Can be explained by the new left ditching the 1960s & 1970s radical social upheaval rhetoric (state ownership, redistribution of wealth, class abolishment). Instead the new left came with a more modest approach, especially attractive after the military bureaucracies messed up the financial situation EVEN MORE and the following center-rights inherited challenges like increased taxes & spending cuts. With the end of the cold war, the red scare disappeared and people were less worried about being labeled commies for voting left (pre cold war, electing a leftist = military coup). Modest approach was now using a toned down rhetoric that criticized extreme poverty/inequality/underdevelopment w/o calling for a new system.
Connections: Connect to leftist leaders like Chavez & Morales. Cold war, neoliberalism
Examples:
Bolivarian Revolution (1/2 done)
Definition: Bolivarianism/Bolivarian revolution: 21st century socialism inspired by Simon Bolivar. Started by Hugo Chavez, an anti-imperialist and wanted to bring grassroots democracy to venezuela focusing on autonomy & development. Chavez, like populists before him used nationalist & anti-free market rhetoric. Called for independence & self-sufficiency. Renamed the country the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela.
Human rights
Definition: A fluid concept that vary widely depending on the time and context of usage. Currently defined as the basic rights and freedoms that all people have from birth to death, regardless of their status or circumstances by the UN. Human rights frequently appear as an issue throughout world and LA history, including during the military bureaucracy era, the development of liberation theology, amnesty laws, narco-terrorism groups, indigenous rights, social advocacy and more.
Connections: Connect to amnesty laws & doctrine of national security. Talk about development of human rights through cold war.
Examples: Prisoner w/o a name
Neoliberalism
Definition: Arose amid incomplete democratization, colonial legacies, and economic crises, as global shifts and domestic instability ended the ISI model. Initially was seen as a pathway to modernization, but faced increasing criticism for deepening inequalities, fostering precarious employment, and limiting political and social inclusion. It led to reduced state roles, export-oriented economies, and privatization of public goods like healthcare and education. It reshaped economies by prioritizing markets and minimizing state intervention, dismantling postwar state-led frameworks. Although it faced criticism in Argentina, neoliberalism still remains a viable political option due to limited differentiation in alternative strategies and Argentina’s challenges in addressing inequalities and constructing state-led development strategies.
Connections: Connect to ISI collapse + talk about the IMF (International Monetary Fund) creating plans for LA governments that defaulted on loans. Mention dependency theory as a contributing factor.
Examples: ---