Nutrition & Energy
What are the 3 macronutrients?
Carbohydrates, protein, fat
What are the 3 types of muscle tissue?
Skeletal, cardiac, and smooth
State Newton’s 1st law.
An object remains at rest or in motion unless acted on by a force
What’s the difference between CNS and PNS?
CNS = brain & spinal cord; PNS = all other nerves
Name one cardiovascular adaptation to endurance training.
Increased stroke volume or reduced resting heart rate
What does the ATP-PC system use to regenerate ATP?
Phosphocreatine (PCr)
What is the Z-line in a sarcomere?
The boundary of a sarcomere where actin filaments anchor
What class of lever is used in a biceps curl?
Third-class lever
Outline the role of glucagon during prolonged exercise.
Increases blood glucose levels; Stimulates glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis in the liver; Helps maintain fuel availability for working muscles
Describe one cardiovascular adaptation that results from endurance training.
Increased stroke volume; Heart pumps more blood per beat; Leads to more efficient oxygen delivery to muscles
Which energy systems are dominant in a 400 m sprint?
Primarily anaerobic glycolysis, with some ATP-PC at the start
What’s a key difference between Type I and Type IIa fibers?
Type I = endurance, more mitochondria; Type IIa = fast, more fatigue-prone
Define drag and describe one way athletes reduce it to improve performance.
Drag: a resistive force caused by fluid (air or water) opposing motion. Can be reduced by streamlining body position (e.g., tight suits, shaved body, cycling tuck position). Minimizing surface area facing flow reduces form drag
Explain how the autonomic nervous system helps regulate heart rate during exercise.
The sympathetic nervous system increases heart rate and stroke volume by stimulating the SA node
The parasympathetic nervous system (vagal tone) is reduced at the onset of exercise
This shift ensures increased cardiac output to meet the demands of working muscles
Describe the order of energy system contribution during a 2-minute bout of continuous exercise.
0–10s: ATP-PC system dominant; 10s–60s: Anaerobic glycolysis increasingly contributes; 60s onward: Aerobic system becomes dominant; All systems contribute, but the dominant one changes with time and intensity.
Explain the roles of insulin and glucagon in maintaining blood glucose levels before, during, and after prolonged aerobic exercise.
Before exercise: insulin facilitates glucose uptake and glycogen storage; glucagon is low.
During exercise: insulin decreases, glucagon increases to promote glycogenolysis and maintain blood glucose.
After exercise: insulin rises to promote glycogen resynthesis; glucagon drops as glucose levels normalize.
Discuss how the “size principle” of motor unit recruitment helps regulate force production in a muscle during progressive resistance training.
Small, slow-twitch motor units (Type I) are recruited first for low force demands. As force demand increases, larger, fast-twitch units (Type IIa, IIx) are recruited. This ensures energy efficiency and smooth increases in muscle force during exercise.
Analyze how a diver manipulates moment of inertia during different phases of a somersault to control rotation.
Tucking decreases moment of inertia → increases angular velocity (spins faster). Extending increases moment of inertia → slows rotation for controlled entry. Angular momentum is conserved unless acted on by external torque
Explain how the nervous and endocrine systems work together to regulate cardiovascular function during exercise.
Nervous system (via sympathetic branch) increases heart rate and stroke volume. Endocrine system releases epinephrine and norepinephrine (adrenal medulla) to support and prolong this effect. Integration allows rapid and sustained cardiovascular adjustments
Discuss the role of glucagon and insulin during prolonged exercise and recovery.
During exercise: Insulin decreases to limit glucose uptake in non-active tissues; Glucagon increases to stimulate glycogenolysis and maintain blood glucose.
During recovery: Insulin increases to promote glucose uptake and glycogen resynthesis; Glucagon decreases as glucose levels return to normal.
How does breathing change during exercise?
Increased tidal volume and respiratory rate to meet oxygen demands
What two ways can the body increase muscle force?
Recruit more motor units and increase firing rate (rate coding)
How does an athlete influence projectile motion?
By adjusting angle, speed, height, and spin of release
Discuss the integrated role of the nervous and endocrine systems in regulating fuel availability and heart function during prolonged exercise.
Nervous system: sympathetic activation increases HR, SV, redirects blood flow; Endocrine system: adrenal glands release adrenaline; pancreas adjusts insulin/glucagon; Glucagon stimulates glycogenolysis/gluconeogenesis; Insulin suppressed to prioritize fuel for active tissues; Combined response maintains blood glucose and oxygen delivery for performance
Evaluate how cardiovascular and muscular adaptations after 8–12 weeks of endurance training improve aerobic capacity and delay fatigue.
CV adaptations: ↑ stroke volume, ↑ blood volume, ↓ resting HR, improved capillary networks; Muscular adaptations: ↑ mitochondria, ↑ myoglobin, ↑ oxidative enzyme activity; Result: greater VO₂ max, better fat utilization, delayed reliance on anaerobic glycolysis; Performance impact: improved efficiency, reduced lactate buildup, enhanced recovery; Evaluation: these changes significantly increase endurance performance and reduce physiological stress