The Enlightenment
An 18th-century European intellectual movement that emphasized reason, individualism, science, and human progress over tradition and autocratic authority.
The Enlightenment
Montesquieu
French political philosopher who proposed dividing government powers into distinct branches (The Spirit of the Laws, 1748).
Industrial Revolution
The rapid shift from agrarian, handcraft economies to power-driven, machine-manufacturing systems starting in late 18th-century Britain.
Adam Smith
Scottish economist regarded as the "father of modern capitalism"; authored The Wealth of Nations (1776).
Nationalism
An ideology holding that a group of people sharing common culture, language, and history form a distinct nation that deserves its own sovereign state.
Social Contract
An implicit agreement among members of a society to cooperate for social benefits, sacrificing some personal freedoms in exchange for state protection and order.
Rousseau
French philosopher who argued that legitimate political authority rests on the "general will" of the people (The Social Contract, 1762).
Steam Engine
A heat engine that performs mechanical work using steam; refined by James Watt in the 1770s.
Capitalism
An economic system based on private ownership of production, competitive markets, and profit accumulation.
Unification of Italy
The political movement (Risorgimento) that merged separate Italian states into a unified Kingdom of Italy by 1861.
Thomas Hobbes
English philosopher who argued that humans are naturally selfish and chaotic, requiring an absolute monarch to enforce order (Leviathan, 1651).
Mary Wollstonecraft
Mary Wollstonecraft
Urbanization
The mass movement of populations from rural countryside areas into rapidly expanding industrial cities.
Karl Marx & Friedrich Engels
Authors of The Communist Manifesto (1848); argued history is driven by class struggles between workers and owners.
Unification of Germany
The consolidation of independent German states into a single German Empire under Prussian dominance in 1871.
John Locke
English philosopher who posited that humans possess natural rights—life, liberty, and property—and that government exists solely to protect them.
Separation of Powers
The institutional division of government responsibilities into executive, legislative, and judicial branches.
Enclosure Acts
A series of UK parliamentary laws privatizing common land, displacing small farm tenants into cities.
Communism
A political and economic ideology aiming for a stateless, classless society with collective ownership of production.
Greek Independence
The successful revolution (1821–1830) by Greek nationalists against centuries of Ottoman rule.
Voltaire
Voltaire
Consent of the Governed
The principle that a government's authority is only legitimate when approved by the citizens over whom it rules.
Laissez-Faire
An economic policy advocating zero or minimal government regulation, intervention, or tariffs in market trade.
Labor Union
An association of workers formed to collectively bargain for better wages, shorter hours, and safer working conditions.
Characteristics of a Nation-State
A sovereign political unit where geographic borders encompass a population sharing a unified national identity, government, language, and culture.