Classifications of phraseological units
How many main types of phraseological units did V. V. Vinogradov distinguish? Name them
Phraseological fusions, phraseological unities and phraseological collocations.
Source: V. V. Vinogradov, Основные понятия русской фразеологии как лингвистической дисциплины (1946). The classification is also discussed in R. S. Ginzburg et al., A Course in Modern English Lexicology.
What are the three main types of phraseological units identified in V.V. Vinogradov's classification based on the degree of semantic cohesion?
The three main types are:
1. Phraseological fusions (сращения) – the highest stage of blending, completely non-motivated.
2. Phraseological unities (единства) – clearly motivated, based on an image.
3. Phraseological combinations (сочетания) – motivated, but containing one component used in its direct meaning and the other figuratively.
Source: Arnold, I.V. "The English Word", Chapter 9, § 9.3.
Which of the following is a phraseological unit rather than a free word combination?
A) To carry coal to Liverpool
B) To open the window
C) To carry coals to Newcastle
D) To buy a new book
C — To carry coals to Newcastle
To carry coals to Newcastle has a transferred meaning: to take something to a place where it is already plentiful and not needed.
«Ехать в Тулу со своим самоваром».
Source: Antrooshina, p. 225–226, Chapter 12: the authors use exactly the contrast carrying coals to Newcastle vs carrying coal to Liverpool to illustrate the semantic difference between a phraseological unit and a free word-group.
According to G.B. Antrushina, this biblical idiom describes a person who hides evil intentions behind a mask of virtue.
A wolf in sheep's clothing
Antrushina notes this expression came from the Gospel of Matthew and has become a common set phrase in English.
What does "red tape" mean? What real-life object gave birth to this phrase?
It means excessive bureaucracy and official formalities. The phrase comes from the real custom of British government officials tying their important documents with red tape (красная тесьма).
Source: Antrushina G.B. et al. Lexicology of the English Language. — M., 2001. — Chapter 2, p. 13.
What does the English idiom “to kick the bucket” mean? Which type of phraseological unit is it according to Vinogradov?
It means “to die”. It is a phraseological fusion because its meaning cannot be understood from the individual words.
Source: R. S. Ginzburg et al., A Course in Modern English Lexicology, section on phraseological units and Vinogradov's classification. The idiom's meaning can also be checked in the Oxford Dictionary of English Idioms.
True or False: Phraseological fusions (e.g., to kick the bucket) are completely motivated, meaning you can easily understand their meaning from the literal words. Explain your answer.
False. Phraseological fusions are completely non-motivated. The meaning of the components is completely absorbed by the meaning of the whole, and there is no logical or metaphorical connection between the literal words and the actual meaning (e.g., to kick the bucket means 'to die', not to physically kick a bucket). They often contain archaic words or words with lost meanings.
Source: Arnold, I.V. "The English Word", Chapter 9, § 9.3.
According to prof. Antrooshina which statement about free word combinations is correct?
A) They always have a figurative meaning.
B) They are used as ready-made units with a fixed structure.
C) They are built up anew in the speech process.
D) Their components cannot normally be replaced.
C — They are built up anew in the speech process.
According to Prof. Antrooshina, free word-groups are not absolutely “free”; they are called free because they are built up anew in the speech process, whereas idioms are used as ready-made units with fixed and constant structures.
Source: Antrushina, p. 225, Chapter 12.
In I.V. Arnold's textbook, this idiom means "to be in a dangerous situation, close to failure". It originally came from maritime terminology.
To be on the rocks
It first described a ship wrecked on rocks; now it is used figuratively for financial or personal ruin.
What does the idiom "to carry coals to Newcastle" mean? Why is it impossible to guess its meaning literally?
It means to do something completely useless. It is impossible to guess literally because it relies on a geographical reality: Newcastle was a major coal-mining city in England, so bringing coal there was absurd.
Source: Ginzburg R.Z. et al. A Course in Modern English Lexicology. — 1979. — Part III, Chapter 4, § 16 "Phraseological Units and Idioms Proper", p. 82.
What is the main difference between a phraseological fusion and a phraseological unity? Give one example of each.
A fusion has a completely non-motivated meaning, for example, “red tape”. A unity has a figurative but understandable meaning, for example, “to spill the beans” (to reveal a secret).
Source: R. S. Ginzburg et al., A Course in Modern English Lexicology, section on the semantic classification of phraseological units; V. V. Vinogradov's classification.
Explain the difference in motivation between a phraseological unity and a phraseological combination. Give one example of each to support your explanation.
The difference lies in the degree of semantic fusion and the role of the components.
· Phraseological unity: The whole unit is motivated by a single image created by the combination of its parts; it is semantically inseparable. (Example: to stick to one's guns – the image of a soldier refusing to leave his post creates the meaning 'refuse to change one's opinion').
· Phraseological combination: It is made up of words with specific lexical valency, where one component retains its direct literal meaning, while the other is used figuratively. (Example: to meet the requirement – meet is used figuratively here, while requirement keeps its direct meaning).
Source: Arnold, I.V. "The English Word", Chapter 9, § 9.3; Ginzburg, R.S., et al. "A Course in Modern English Lexicology", Chapter 2, § 12.
Which two major criteria does Antrooshina use to distinguish phraseological units from free word-groups?
A) Phonetic and stylistic
B) Semantic and structural
C) Morphological and functional
D) Etymological and grammatical
B — Semantic and structural
Prof. Antrooshina explicitly states that there are two major criteria for distinguishing phraseological units from free word-groups:
semantic criterion — the meaning of the whole combination;
structural criterion — the stability and restrictions on changing its components.
This mythological idiom means an extremely difficult, dirty, and neglected task that must be completed at once. It is connected with one of the labours of Hercules.
To clean the Augean stables
Hercules had to clean the enormous stables of King Augeas in one day. Now the phrase means a total clean-up or a neglected mess.
Source: R.S. Ginzburg et al.
Compare the English idiom "as mad as a hatter" with the Russian equivalent "безумный как шляпник". Why does the English version reflect a specific historical reality?
The English idiom reflects the 19th-century historical reality: hat-makers (шляпники) used mercury in their work, which caused severe mental illness. The Russian equivalent is just a direct translation (calque) and lacks this historical background; it only exists because of the famous English phrase.
Source: Arnold I.V. The English Word. — M., 1986. — Chapter 9, § 9.2 "Set Expressions, Semi-Fixed Combinations and Free Phrases", p. 168.
What is the difference between structural and functional classifications of phraseological units?
Structural classification focuses on the grammatical structure of an expression, while functional classification focuses on its role in a sentence, for example, whether it functions as a noun, verb, adjective or adverb.
Source: A. V. Kunin, Курс фразеологии современного английского языка (1986), and English-Russian Phraseological Dictionary. The distinction is based on structural and functional approaches to phraseological units.
Analyze the expression to stick (to stand) to one's guns. Which type of phraseological unit is this? Justify your answer by explaining how its semantic cohesion is formed.
This is a phraseological unity. It is clearly motivated, and its emotional quality is based on the image created by the whole phrase. The literal image of a soldier standing by his guns and refusing to retreat implies courage and integrity, which metaphorically transfers to the meaning 'refuse to change one's statements or opinions in the face of opposition'. It is stable, but the connection between the image and the meaning is transparent.
Source: Arnold, I.V. "The English Word", Chapter 9, § 9.3.
Which of the following examples best demonstrates the structural difference between a phraseological unit and a free word combination?
A) To carry coal to Liverpool → to transport coal to Liverpool
B) To break the ice → to break the snow
C) To read a book → to read a novel
D) To open the door → to close the door
B — To break the ice → to break the snow
Phraseological units are characterised by structural invariability and restrictions on substitution. Replacing a component can destroy the phraseological unit. In free word-groups, substitution is much less restricted.
Source: Arnold, pp. 166, 176–177
According to G.B. Antrushina, this idiom means "to be extremely stubborn and never give up". It comes from the nickname of soldiers of the 57th Regiment who refused to surrender at the Battle of Albuera (1811) despite their wounds.
Die-hard
The soldiers "died hard" rather than surrender; the expression is now often used in political contexts.
Source: G.B. Antrushina
What is the difference between an idiom (like "to break the ice") and a proverb (like "It is no use crying over spilt milk") in terms of their function in speech?
An idiom functions as a word-equivalent (it acts as a part of a sentence, e.g., a verb). A proverb functions as a communicative unit (it is a complete, independent sentence that expresses a general truth).
Source: Arnold I.V. The English Word. — M., 1986. — Chapter 9, § 9.6 "Proverbs, Sayings, Familiar Quotations and Clichés", p. 179-180.
According to A. V. Kunin's classification, phraseological units can be divided into several groups based on their grammatical function. Identify the functional type of each expression:
A dark horse
To take advantage of
By heart
As busy as a bee
A dark horse — substantive (noun function).
To take advantage of — verbal (verb function).
By heart — adverbial (adverb function).
As busy as a bee — adjectival (adjective function).
Source: A. V. Kunin, Курс фразеологии современного английского языка (1986), classification of phraseological units according to their function in the sentence. The examples are used to illustrate the corresponding grammatical functions.
Compare the structural and semantic characteristics of to wash one's dirty linen in public and to meet the requirements. Explain why one has greater semantic cohesion (is closer to a fusion) than the other, even though both are considered phraseological units.
· To wash one's dirty linen in public (meaning 'to discuss private quarrels in public') is a phraseological unity. It is based on a clear metaphor (dirty linen = private problems). Its semantic cohesion is very high because the meaning of the whole is a complete metaphorical transfer of the literal action. It does not allow substitution of its main components.
· To meet the requirements is a phraseological combination. It has less semantic cohesion because the verb meet is used in a specific figurative meaning, but the noun requirements retains its direct meaning. It allows a certain degree of variability (e.g., to meet the demand, to meet the necessity, to satisfy the requirements).
Therefore, the unity is semantically more inseparable and cohesive than the combination.
Source: Arnold, I.V. "The English Word", Chapter 9, § 9.3; Ginzburg, R.S., et al. "A Course in Modern English Lexicology", Chapter 2, § 12.
According to I. V. Arnold, what is the main difference between set expressions and free phrases?
According to Arnold, set expressions are ready-made units characterised by stability and semantic unity, while free phrases are created in the process of speech. Arnold also stresses that the boundary between set expressions and free phrases is not always absolute: some set expressions may allow certain structural changes.
Source: Arnold, The English Word, 1986, pp. 166–169
This historical idiom means "to suffer a final, decisive defeat". It comes from the name of an 1815 battle in which Napoleon was crushed.
To meet one's Waterloo
The Battle of Waterloo was Napoleon's final defeat. The phrase now means any decisive failure.
Souce: I.V. Arnold
Explain the term "equivalent-lacking phraseological unit". Give an example of an English idiom that has no direct Russian equivalent and explain why
An equivalent-lacking unit is a phraseological unit that has no corresponding phraseological equivalent in another language because it is based on a unique national reality. A good example is "a white elephant" (белый слон). In Russian, we have to explain it descriptively as "обуза" or "дорогая, но бесполезная вещь" because we do not have the cultural tradition of the King of Siam giving these animals as a burden.
Source: Arnold I.V. The English Word. — M., 1986. — Chapter 9, § 9.5 "Features Enhancing Unity and Stability of Set Expressions", p. 177-178.