Blood
How does Vitamin B12, Iron, and Folic acid affect red blood cell production?
Vitamin B12 and Folic acid help make DNA to form new red blood cells.
Iron (Fe) is needed to make hemoglobin which is the main protein in red blood cells that transports oxygen.
What is the difference between the pulmonary and systemic circuits?
Pulmonary: Deoxygenated blood from right ventricle to lungs. Oxygenated blood from lungs to left atrium.
Systemic: Deoxygenated blood from body's tissues into right atrium. Oxygenated blood from left ventricle into body's tissues.
Define:
Bradycardia
Tachycardia
Bradycardia: abnormally slow heart rate <60bpm at rest
Tachycardia: abnormally fast heart rate >100bpm at rest
What is the difference between the innate and adaptive immune system?
Innate (nonspecific) defenses: Guards against many types of pathogens and responds quickly.
Ex. Species resistance, mechanical barriers, chemical barriers, natural killer cells, inflammation, phagocytosis, and fever.
Adaptive (specific) defenses: Responds slowly against a specific type of pathogen.
Ex. B and T cells (lymphocytes)
What do goblet cells and cilia do?
Goblet cells produce mucus trapping dust and pathogens in respiratory membranes.
Cilia sweep mucus towards the pharynx where it is swallowed and pathogens are then destroyed by stomach acid.
Smoking paralyses cilia.
List the four blood types, their antigens, and the antibodies a person with that blood type produces.
A: Antigen A; Antibody-B
B: Antigen B; Antibody-A
AB: Both Antigen A and Antigen B; No Antibodies (universal recipient)
O: No Antigens; Antibody-A and Antibody B (universal donor)
Bonus: Rh factor is another antigen on RBCs. You either have it (are +) or don't (are -)
What closes during each heart sound?
S1: "Lubb"
S2: "Dupp"
S1: "Lubb": Closure of Atrioventricular (tricuspid and mitral) valves during ventricular contraction.
S2: "Dupp": Closure of Semilunar (pulmonary and aortic) valves during ventricular relaxation.
Bonus: A murmur is an abnormal heart sound due to incomplete valve closure.
List the flow of blood vessels starting with leaving the heart and ending with entering the heart.
Arteries -> arterioles -> capillaries -> venules -> veins.
Arteries are strong and elastic due to taking the direct pressure from the heart's contractions (Hydrostatic pressure). Capillaries are where gas exchange occurs between our blood vessels and tissues. Veins are thinner, have low pressure, valves to prevent backflow, and contain 2/3 of the body's blood at any time. Skeletal muscle contraction helps move blood back towards the heart.
Explain why fluid moves from blood capillaries to tissues to lymphatic capillaries and the name of the fluid as it enters each new place.
Hydrostatic pressure forces fluid from spaces with high pressure to spaces with low pressure. When our heart beats it creates higher pressure in our blood plasma relative to tissue spaces, pushing fluid into the tissue spaces (creating tissue fluid). Higher pressure in the tissue spaces pushes fluid into lymphatic capillaries (creating lymph) where it remains as low pressure.
What is the difference between Type I and Type II alveolar cells?
Type I is simple squamous epithelium and makes up the walls of the alveoli. Thin to allow for diffusion.
Type II secretes surfactant and keeps the alveoli from collapsing during expiration.
Describe the three formed elements.
You should include where they are made, the scientific names, main characteristics, and main functions.
All made in red bone marrow.
1. Red blood cells (erythrocytes) contain hemoglobin which transports oxygen. Biconcave disc shape, lack nuclei/mitochondria, and cannot divide. Most abundant (Hematocrit 45%)
2. White blood cells (leukocytes) protect against disease. Contain granulocytes (basophils, eosinophils, neutrophils) and agranulocytes (monocytes and lymphocytes (T and B cells).
3. Platelets (thrombocytes) function in hemostasis (blood clotting). They come from stem cells in red bone marrow called megakaryocytes. Release hormone serotonin.
What does each part of the EKG mean?
P wave
QRS complex
T wave
P wave: Atrial depolarization -> electrical signal before atrial systole (contraction).
QRS complex:
Atrial repolarization -> electrical signal before atrial diastole (relaxation).
Ventricular depolarization ->electrical signal before ventricular systole (contraction).
T wave: Ventricular repolarization -> electrical signal before ventricular diastole (relaxation).
What three places contain oxygen-rich blood?
Include systemic arteries or veins, which side of the heart, and pulmonary arteries or veins.
Oxygen-rich: Systemic arteries, left side of heart, pulmonary veins.
Oxygen-poor: Systemic veins, right side of heart, pulmonary arteries.
What is the main function of each accessory lymphatic organ:
Lymph nodes
MALT
Thymus
Spleen
Lymph nodes filter lymph (macrophages destroy bacteria and cellular debris) and perform immune surveillance (lymphocytes attack pathogens). Located everywhere except CNS.
Mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT) filters fluids in the digestive, respiratory, urinary, and reproductive systems. Ex. Tonsils in throat.
Thymus creates mature T cells-part of our active immunity.
Spleen filters blood and removes damaged blood cells and bacteria.
What are the five main parts of the respiratory tract?
Where does gas exchange occur?
Nose/Nasal Cavity
Pharynx
Larynx
Trachea
Bronchial tree
Gas exchange occurs in Alveoli
Make sure you know main features of each :)
Describe the three steps in hemostasis:
1. Vascular spasm
2. Platelet plug formation
3. Blood coagulation
1. Vascular spasm-Vasoconstriction triggered by cutting the smooth muscle of blood vessels. Platelets release serotonin, causing more vasoconstriction, and less blood loss.
2. Platelet plug formation-Platelets recognize exposed collagen from cut and stick to it, "plugging up" the cut. Platelets binding to collagen causes them to release Prothrombin Activator (inhibited by heparin).
3. Blood coagulation- Prothrombin Activator turns Prothrombin into Thrombin. Thrombin turns Fibrinogen (always floating in blood) into Fibrin which forms a net and reinforces the clot while the blood vessel heals.
What are the four main steps of the cardiac conduction system?
Sinoatrial (SA) node: "Pacemaker"-initiates atrial contractions.
Atrioventricular (AV) node: Delays impulses until atria finish contracting and ventricles fill with blood.
AV bundle of His: Sends impulses down interventricular septum to the right and left ventricles.
Purkinje fibers: Located in papillary muscles lining walls of ventricles. Causes ventricles to contract.
Blood volume
Blood viscosity
Heart rate
Stroke volume
Peripheral resistance
Increased blood volume, blood viscosity, heart rate, stroke volume, and peripheral resistance increases blood pressure.
Stroke volume is the volume of blood that enters the arteries with each ventricular contraction.
Peripheral resistance is the force of friction between blood and the walls of blood vessels.
Heart rate and stroke volume increase with sympathetic stimulation from the nervous system.
Describe how vaccines work.
Your answer should include one from each group:
Primary/Secondary immune response
Active/Passive immunity
Natural/Artificial immunity
Vaccines stimulate a primary immune response by activating B and T cells upon first encounter with an antigen. Active immunity due to exposure to antigens. Artificial immunity due to injection.
Describe the four respiratory volumes:
Tidal volume (TV)
Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV)
Expiratory reserve volume (ERV)
Residual volume (RV)
TV: One respiratory cycle (1 inspiration + 1 expiration)
IRV: Max volume of air you can inhale after a quiet inspiration
ERV: Max volume of air you can exhale after a quiet expiration
RV: Volume of air that never leaves the lungs
Describe the following anemias (100 points for each correct):
Hemorrhagic
Hemolytic
Pernicious
Aplastic
Iron-deficiency
Sickle cell
Hemorrhagic-Loss of blood from a damaged blood vessel
Hemolytic-Destruction of RBCs due to bacterial infections/blood transfusion incompatibilities
Pernicious-Deficiency of intrinsic factor affecting VitB12 absorption
Aplastic-Destruction of bone marrow by radiation, cancer, etc.
Iron-deficiency-Dietary malnourishment, heavy menstruation, bleeding
Sickle cell-Genetic mutation resulting in abnormal hemoglobin structure
Describe blood flow of the heart.
Deoxygenated blood flows from the superior vena cava, inferior vena cava, and coronary sinus into the right atrium. Blood passes through the tricuspid valve into the right ventricle then through the pulmonary valve, pulmonary trunk, and right/left pulmonary arteries into the lungs where the blood picks up oxygen.
Oxygenated blood returns to the left atrium of the heart using the four pulmonary veins. Blood passes through the mitral valve into the left ventricle. Finally blood is pumped through the aortic valve and aorta to the rest of the body.
List the six layers of the heart from superficial to deep.
Fibrous pericardium: tough outer layer
Parietal pericardium
Pericardial cavity: contains serous fluid which helps reduce friction between layers
Visceral pericardium/Epicardium
Myocardium: cardiac muscle tissue
Endocardium: lines chambers of the heart
Describe the three types of T cells and two types of B cells.
Helper T cells: stimulate B cells to turn into plasma cells.
Cytotoxic T cells: release perforin to lyse pathogen membranes.
Memory T cells: provides quick response (activates cytotoxic t cells) to future exposure of the same antigen.
Plasma (B) cells: produce and secrete antibodies which attack antigens on foreign cell's membranes
Memory B cells: provides quick response (antibody release) to future exposure of the same antigen
Describe resting and forced expiration.
(Don't forget about resting/forced inspiration for the exam)
Resting expiration is a passive process (there is no muscle contraction). Instead it relies on elastic recoil (the force that occurs when the muscles for inspiration relax) and surface tension.
Forced expiration requires contraction of the internal intercostal and abdominal muscles.
Both of these decrease volume of thoracic cavity, making alveolar pressure greater than atmospheric pressure, which forces air out of the lungs.