Roman civilization
The 'Roman Peace' — a period of relative peace and stability across the Roman Empire from 27 BCE to 180 CE, spanning the reigns of Augustus through Marcus Aurelius.
Pax Romana
A sophisticated legal system based on principles such as innocent until proven guilty, equal application of law, and the right to a fair trial; foundation of many modern legal systems.
Roman Law
The founder of Christianity; a Jewish teacher in Roman-controlled Judea who preached love, forgiveness, and salvation; crucified by Roman authorities c. 30 CE.
Jesus of Nazareth
Roman Emperor (r. 306-337 CE) who converted to Christianity, issued the Edict of Milan, convened the Council of Nicaea (325 CE), and moved the capital to Constantinople.
Constantine I
A rigid social hierarchy in ancient India based on birth; the four main varnas were Brahmins (priests), Kshatriyas (warriors), Vaishyas (merchants), and Shudras (laborers), with untouchables below all.
Caste System
An engineering structure that transported fresh water over long distances to Roman cities; a key feature of Roman infrastructure.
Aqueduct
Five consecutive emperors (96-180 CE): Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, Marcus Aurelius; considered Rome's golden age of governance.
Five Good Emperors
One of Jesus's 12 closest disciples chosen to spread his teachings; the apostles were the first missionaries of Christianity.
Apostle
A meeting of Christian bishops (325 CE) called by Constantine to resolve theological disputes and establish official Christian doctrine (the Nicene Creed).
Council of Nicaea
The oldest sacred Hindu texts, written in Sanskrit, containing hymns, rituals, and philosophical teachings; the foundation of Hindu religious tradition.
Vedas
The process by which conquered peoples adopted Roman culture, language (Latin), laws, and customs; helped unify the diverse empire.
Romanization
A trained fighter (often enslaved or a criminal) who fought in public arenas for entertainment; a key cultural institution of Roman society.
Gladiator
A former persecutor of Christians who converted after a vision of Jesus; traveled extensively throughout the Mediterranean establishing Christian communities and writing many New Testament letters.
Paul of Tarsus
The bishop of Rome; the leader of the Roman Catholic Church; the office grew in authority as Rome's political power declined.
Pope
One's righteous duty or moral obligation in Hinduism; fulfilling dharma was central to maintaining cosmic and social order.
Dharma
The language of the Romans; the ancestor of modern Romance languages (Spanish, French, Italian, Portuguese, Romanian).
Latin
The systematic mistreatment or punishment of a group for their beliefs; early Christians were persecuted by Roman authorities (e.g., under Nero and Diocletian).
Persecution
Roman Emperor who in 380 CE issued the Edict of Thessalonica, making Christianity the official state religion of the Roman Empire.
Theodosius I
The first major empire to unify most of the Indian subcontinent, founded by Chandragupta Maurya in 322 BCE.
Maurya Empire
A massive amphitheater built in Rome (completed 80 CE) capable of holding 50,000 spectators; used for gladiatorial games and public spectacles.
Colosseum
A proclamation (313 CE) issued by Emperor Constantine and his co-emperor Licinius that granted religious tolerance to all people in the Roman Empire, ending official persecution of Christians.
Edict of Milan
The third Maurya emperor (r. 268-232 BCE) who converted to Buddhism after the brutal Kalinga War and promoted non-violence, tolerance, and compassion through royal edicts.
Ashoka