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Skeleton Function & Organisation

100

List major subdivisions of skeleton

cranial v post-cranial

axial v appendicular

200

What functions of the skeleton are vertebrate specific?

• Storage of mineral and energy reserves 

• Hemopoiesis (blood cell production in amniotic vertebrates; bone marrow makes red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets) 

• Surface for muscle attachment

300

List & Describe functions of vertebrate skeletal system.

• Support body weight and shape
• Protection of organs (brain, thorax)
• Surface for muscle attachment for movement (levers)
• Rigidity
• Mineral and energy storage
• Hemopoiesis

400

Functions of axial vs appendicular skeletons

• Axial: protection (brain, vertebral column, sternum & ribs), posture, muscle attachment
• Appendicular: locomotion, limb movement, interaction with environment (limbs & girdles)

Bone types, Cells & Ossification

100

example of a:
- long bone
- short bone

- flat bone

- irregular bone

- sesamoid bone

• Long (femur)

• Short (carpals/tarsals)

• Flat (scapula, skull)

• Irregular (vertebrae)

• Sesamoid (patella)

200

list & briefly describe bone cells

• Osteoprogenitor: stem cells → osteoblasts
• Osteoblast: forms bone matrix
• Osteocyte: maintains matrix, detects stress
• Osteoclast: resorbs bone, releases calcium

500

Describe endochondral and intramembranous ossification, and where these occur in the body.

• Endochondral: hyaline cartilage model → long bones, most bones.
  The cartilage template is avascular
  Surrounding vessels bring osteoblasts to the cartilage surface Ossification occurs around the diaphysis (midshaft – primary ossification centre) & prevents diffusion into the hyaline cartilage,resulting in cell death
  Creates a cavity in which blood vessels can penetrate, transporting osteoblasts and osteoprogenitor cells
  After birth,this process repeats in the epiphysis regions (secondary ossification centres)
•  
• Intramembranous: mesenchyme → produces osteoprogenitor cells . Begins during foetal development and continue -> flat skull bones, clavicle

Joints & Movement

100

list joint classification

fibrous, cartilaginous, synovial
plane, hinge, pivot, condylar, saddle, ball-socket

200

briefly desc difference between mobility & stability of the shoulder vs hip joint

• Shoulder: high mobility, low stability
• Hip: high stability, less mobility (deep socket, strong ligaments)

300

Describe the synovial joint

• Freely mobile joints where articulating bones are separated by a joint cavity (=synovial cavity)
• Enclosed within joint capsule

400

how do synovial joints reduce friction

Articular cartilage 

• Hyaline cartilage covering entire articulation surface 

Synovial fluid 

• Slippery fluid providing lubrication 

• Nourishment to articular cartilage 

Bursae 

• Thin,fluid-filled sac thatreduces friction between structures

muscle properties & contraction// muscle attachment

100

list & explain 4 properties of muscle tissue

Excitability: Muscle cells are responsive to input from stimuli  Contractility: Stimulation of muscle fibre can lead to contraction and shortening of the muscle fibre 

Extensibility: The ability of a muscle fibre to be stretched beyond its resting length without being damaged 

 Elasticity: A contracted muscle cell can return to resting length when applied tension is removed

200

identify functions of skeletal muscle

Under voluntary control 

Body movement 

Maintenance of posture 

Support and protection for internal organs 

Temperature regulation (production of body heat)

400

Describe roles of agonistic, antagonistic & synergistic muscles with examples.

Agonist: the prime mover 

Antagonist: muscle that opposes the anagonist 

 Synergist: muscle that assists the agonist  

Locomotion

100

adaptations for weight bearing

erect limbs

• Robust, pillar-like limbs • Joints with limited range of motion • Short, robust digits • Digits spreadout to support the limb

200

adaptations for leaping

Saltatorial 

- Long,‘high gear’ limbs

- Digital reduction 

- Extreme limb ratio 

- Counterbalancing tail

300

how to increase stride length

rotate scapula on chest

Rotate scapula on chest
Requires 

- Loss of clavicle 

- Reorientation of scapula to swing in plane of motion 

Increasing spinal flexion/extension increases stride length (e.g. cheetah)

400

icnrease stride rate??

Use high gear muscles 

Total limb velocity is the sum of all individual joint velocities about each pivot 

Add extra pivot points to increase total limb velocity 

• Add scapula to effective limb length

 • Stand on toes (digitigrade, unguligrade)

Lighten the distal limb
• Reducing muscle mass
• Losing bone mass by fusing and reducing digits

Recycle elastic energy in tendons