Key Terms 1
A rigid social hierarchy in ancient India based on birth; the four main varnas were Brahmins (priests), Kshatriyas (warriors), Vaishyas (merchants), and Shudras (laborers), with untouchables below all.
Caste System
One of the world's oldest religions, originating in ancient India; emphasizes dharma, karma, reincarnation, and moksha (liberation from the cycle of rebirth).
Hinduism
A philosophy founded by Kongzi (Confucius, 551-479 BCE); emphasizes filial piety (respect for parents/elders), social harmony, education, and ethical government.
Confucianism
Chinese dynasty (206 BCE-220 CE) that followed the Qin; established Confucianism as the state ideology and expanded Chinese territory and trade.
Han Dynasty
Rome's first written legal code (450 BCE); established written laws that applied equally to all Roman citizens, a major achievement in legal history.
Twelve Tables
The oldest sacred Hindu texts, written in Sanskrit, containing hymns, rituals, and philosophical teachings; the foundation of Hindu religious tradition.
Vedas
A religion founded by Siddhartha Gautama (the Buddha) in the 5th century BCE; teaches the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path to end suffering and achieve enlightenment.
Buddhism
A Chinese political philosophy that believed strict laws and harsh punishments were needed for social order; embraced by Qin Shi Huang.
Legalism
A form of government in which citizens elect representatives to make decisions on their behalf; Rome's Republic (509-27 BCE) was governed by elected consuls and the Senate.
Republic
One of two elected officials who served as Rome's chief executives in the Republic, each holding power for one year and able to veto the other.
Consul
One's righteous duty or moral obligation in Hinduism; fulfilling dharma was central to maintaining cosmic and social order.
Dharma
The Hindu/Buddhist belief that one's actions in this life determine their fate in the next life (reincarnation).
Karma
China's first emperor (221-210 BCE); unified China through conquest, standardized writing/currency/weights, and began the Great Wall; ruled through Legalist principles.
Qin Shi Huang
The most powerful governing body of the Roman Republic, composed of wealthy patrician landowners who advised consuls and controlled finances and foreign policy.
Senate
Roman general and politician (100-44 BCE) who crossed the Rubicon River to seize power; declared dictator perpetuo; assassinated on March 15, 44 BCE (Ides of March).
Julius Caesar
The first major empire to unify most of the Indian subcontinent, founded by Chandragupta Maurya in 322 BCE.
Maurya Empire
The Chinese political concept that Heaven grants rulers the right to govern based on their virtue; an unjust ruler loses the mandate, legitimizing revolution.
Mandate of Heaven
A vast network of trade routes connecting China to Central Asia, the Middle East, and eventually Rome; facilitated the exchange of goods, ideas, and cultures.
Silk Road
The wealthy, aristocratic class of Roman citizens who held most political power in the early Republic.
Patricians
Rome's first emperor (r. 27 BCE-14 CE); Julius Caesar's adopted great-nephew; defeated Antony and Cleopatra at Actium (31 BCE); began the Pax Romana.
Augustus (Octavian)
The third Maurya emperor (r. 268-232 BCE) who converted to Buddhism after the brutal Kalinga War and promoted non-violence, tolerance, and compassion through royal edicts.
Ashoka
The rise and fall of Chinese dynasties: a new dynasty gains the Mandate of Heaven, rules well, declines, loses the mandate, and is replaced.
Dynastic Cycle
A Confucian value requiring respect and loyalty toward one's parents, elders, and ancestors; the foundation of social harmony.
Filial Piety
The common citizens of Rome — farmers, craftsmen, and merchants — who fought for greater political rights through the Conflict of Orders.
Plebeians
A series of three wars (264-146 BCE) between Rome and Carthage (North Africa); Rome's victory gave it control of the western Mediterranean.
Punic Wars