Language change
In which century was the Great Vowel Shift?
15th-16th century
Which theorist suggested children learn language through imitation and reinforcement?
B.F Skinner
Who developed Accommodation Theory?
Howard Giles.
Who coined the term World Englishes?
Braj Kachru.
What is code-switching?
Shifting between two or more languages or dialects in conversation.
What impact did the printing press have on language change?
It helped standardise spelling and grammar, spread literacy, and fixed certain forms of English.
What is overgeneralisation in CLA?
Applying a grammatical rule too widely (e.g., “mouses” instead of “mice”).
What does instrumental power mean?
Power enforced through authority or status (e.g., law, teacher authority).
What is the difference between English as a lingua franca and English as a native language?
Lingua franca = common means of communication between non-native speakers; native language = first acquired language in Inner Circle contexts.
How does context influence the formality of language?
Audience, purpose, setting affect word choice, grammar, and tone.
What does “etymology” mean?
The study of word origins.
How does Bruner’s theory of the LASS differ from Chomsky’s LAD?
Bruner emphasised caregiver support and social interaction (LASS), while Chomsky focused on innate grammatical ability (LAD).
Explain the difference between positive and negative face.
Positive face = the need to be liked and approved of; negative face = the need for independence and freedom from imposition.
How does Schneider’s Dynamic Model improve on Kachru’s three circles?
It shows stages of variety development (foundation, stabilisation, nativisation, stabilisation, differentiation) rather than just static categories.
Explain how gender might influence language use.
Differences in politeness, hedging, interruptions, or topic choice (socially constructed patterns).
How might the rise of digital English challenge the idea of a single “standard” English?
Online discourse creates new norms (emoji grammar, multimodal texts) that coexist with Standard English, making “the standard” just one option among many.
To what extent does Vygotsky’s social interactionist model account for caregiver language patterns?
It explains scaffolding and child-directed speech, but some cross-cultural evidence shows children acquire language without extensive CDS.
Why might Goffman’s face theory be seen as universalist, and how is this problematic?
It assumes all cultures value “face” in the same way, but politeness and self-presentation vary cross-culturally.
How might Phillipson’s view of English as “linguistic imperialism” be criticised?
It overemphasises power imbalance and neglects how communities choose English for economic/cultural advantage.
To what extent is the notion of “language decay” a projection of prescriptive ideology rather than an objective description of change?
“Decay” is largely prescriptivist rhetoric. Historical fears (slang, printing, Americanisms, texting) never destroyed English — they enriched vocabulary and flexibility. Descriptivists (Crystal) argue “progress” and “decay” are moral judgements, not linguistic facts.
In what ways does Piaget’s theory underestimate children’s language abilities?
Some children acquire language structures before they fully grasp cognitive concepts, showing cognition and language don’t always align.
Can politeness theory fully explain online interactions?
Not fully — online anonymity often reduces politeness, and new forms (emojis, multimodal cues) complicate positive/negative face.
How does Crystal’s idea of English as a “global language” differ from Phillipson’s critique?
Crystal = English spreads due to practicality and neutrality; Phillipson = English spreads due to neo-colonial dominance.