Neuro-transmitters 1
What is excitatory or inhibitory?
Excitatory: they help continue the transmission of an electrical nerve impulse
Inhibitory: they stop the transmission of the nerve impulse.
How many neurotransmitters are there?
At least 100
Mainly 10
Gamma-aminobutyric acid
How long does it take to a brain to fully mature?
More than 20 years
What does nature vs nurture mean?
It is a bebate that ask if we are shaped more by our genes or our environment. Today, scientists agree that its both.
What is agonist and antagonist?
Agonist: A chemical/molecule/substance that stimulates the receptor associated with a particular neurotransmitter, elevating its effects
Antagonist: A chemical/molecule/substance that inhibites the action of receptors associated with a neurotransmitter.
Name 3 excitatory or inhibitory neurotransmitters of the following: acetylcholine, GABA, glutamate, dopamine, noradrenaline, serotonin, histamine, opioid peptides, tachikynin.
Acetylcholine-mostly excitatory
Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)-Inhibitory
Glutamate-Excitatory
Dopamine-Excitatory and inhibitory
Noradrenaline-Mostly excitatory
Serotonin-Inhibitory
Histamine-Excitatory
Opioid peptides-Inhibitory
Tachikynin -Excitatory
What other substances are there in the brain besides neurotransmitters?
Neuromodulators: Substances that alter the responsiveness of neurons, often acting for a longer duration than neurotransmitters. These include adenosine, endocannabinoids, and nitric oxide.
Neurohormones: Synthesized in neurons but secreted into the bloodstream, such as oxytocin and vasopressin, which affect both brain function and peripheral tissues.
Answer one question
When does synaptic pruning occur?
When does the peak density of brain synapses occur?
When does it peak the increase of white matter?
Pruning: Early childhood and adolescence. (From 2-16)
Synaptogenesis, around 2-3
White matter, Around 40
Name at least 2 function differences by gender
Males brains are more “lateralized”
Females scored higher on attention and memory for words and faces.
Males have better spatial processing.
What is the function of acetylcholine or dopamine?
Acetylcholine: It helps muscles move, supports memory and learning, motivation, sexual desire, sleep, it regulates heart rate, blood pressure, gut motility.
Dopamine: It controls movement, motivation, feeling of pleasure and reward, heightened arousal and learning, focus, memory, sleep, mood.
Glutamate: It is important for learning and memory and brain development.
Noradrenaline: It increases alertness and wakefulness, attention, respond to stress, arousal, decision-making.
What is the function of GABA or Serotonin?
GABA: It calms nerve cells down, helping with relaxation and sleep and concentration.
Serotonin: It regulates mood, sleep patterns, sexuality, anxiety, appetite and pain.
Define synaptic pruning and neuroplasticity.
Pruning is removing connections in the brain that are no longer needed.
Neuroplasticity is the ability of the brain to reorganize itselt by forming new neural connections.
Name at least 3 anatomical differences by gender.
Male brains are larger from 8 to 13 percent.
The corpus callosum in females is larger.
The thalamus is larger in men
Anterior hippocampus is larger in male (spatio-visual information)
Posterior hippocampus is larger in females (retrieval of spatio-visual knowledge)
Areas in hypothalamus are larger in heterosexual males.
Amygdala larger in males
Men have higher amount of gray matter, but women have haigher percentage-density.
Males brains vary more than females’
What is the function of Histamine or Peptides (endorphins)?
Histamine: It is involved in immune responses, staying awake and digestion, motivation, inflammatory reactions.
Peptides (endorphins): They control pain and emotions, are natural painkillers and create feelings of pleasure or euphoria.
What is the function of oxitocine?
What happens when it is imbalanced?
It stimulates uterine contractions in childbirth and lactation, sexual arousal, recognition, trust, romantic attachment, bonding.
Imbalances are related to addiction, anorexia, anxiety ASD, depression, PTSD.
What happens when dopamine or acetylcholine is imbalanced?
Acetylcholine's imbalances include Alzheimer’s disease, seizures and muscle spasms, paralysis.
Dopamine's Imbalances include Parkinson’s disease, schizophrenia, bipolar disease, restless legs syndrome, ADHD, adiction to many drugs.
What are the eras or turning points of the brain?
-Childhood From birth to 9
-Adolescent brain from 9 to 32
-Adult brain from 32 to 66
-Early ageing Brain architecture from 66 to 83
-Late ageing 83 till death.
How are transgender or non binary brains?
Some studies suggest that they are more similar to the identified gender brain. More recent studies suggest they do not completely match the average male or female brain. Though we can find some differences such as a smaller volume in the insula or the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis.
What happens when glutamate or noradrenaline are imbalanced?
Glutamate's Imbalances are associated with Alzheimer’s disease, dementia, Parkinson’s disease and seizures, epilepsy, affective disorders.
Noradrenaline's Imbalances include ADHD, depression, anxiety, impaired sleep cycle.
What happens when GABA or Serotonin are imbalanced?
GABA's Imbalances are associated with anxiety, irritability, seizures, and depression.
Serotonin's Imbalances include seasonal affective disorder, anxiety, depression, fibromyalgia and chronic pain, anger control problems, OCD, suicidal tendencies.
What happens when Histamine or Peptides (endorphines) are imbalanced?
Histamine's Imbalances include asthma, multiple sclerosis.
Peptides' (endorphines') Imbalances include fibromyalgia, headaches.
Describe the main feature of the 5 eras of the brain.
-Childhood From birth to 9
Rapid brain growth of grey and white matter. Pruning of excess neural connections.
-Adolescent brain from 9 to 32
Growth of the white matter: efficency and high-speed of connections.
-Adult brain from 32 to 66
The most stable phase. Very slow neural changes.
-Early ageing Brain from 66 to 83
Gradual reorganisation of brain networks. White matter connectivity starts to degenerate.
-Late ageing 83 till death.
Whole brain connectivity declines.
What is brain mosaicism?
Scientific consensus is moving toward the understanding that brains are not strictly binary (male or female) but are a "mosaic" of traits.