Cardiac
Name the chamber of the heart that receives oxygenated blood from the lungs.
Left Atrium
What is the primary muscle that contracts to allow inhalation?
Diaphragm.
What type of tissue connects muscle to bone?
Tendon.
What type of cell transmits electrical signals in the nervous system?
Neuron.
Define homeostasis in one sentence.
Homeostasis is the maintenance of stable internal conditions despite external changes.
What blood vessels carry blood away from the heart? Give the general name and one example.
Arteries; example: aorta.
Where does gas exchange occur in the lungs? Name the microscopic structures.
Alveoli (specifically alveolar sacs and alveolar-capillary membranes).
Name the structural unit of a long bone (the shaft).
Diaphysis.
Name the gap between two neurons where neurotransmitters are released.
Synaptic cleft (synapse)
Give one example of a negative feedback loop in the human body.
Example: Thermoregulation via sweating when body temperature rises (negative feedback reduces temp).
Explain the function of the valves in the heart.
Heart valves prevent backflow and ensure one-way flow of blood through the heart chambers.
Define tidal volume in pulmonary physiology
Tidal volume is the amount of air inhaled or exhaled during a normal breath.
Differentiate between origin and insertion of a skeletal muscle.
Origin is the fixed attachment (usually proximal); insertion is the movable attachment (usually distal).
Define myelin and explain one functional advantage it provides to neurons.
Myelin is a fatty insulating sheath around axons (produced by Schwann cells in PNS and oligodendrocytes in CNS); it increases conduction velocity via saltatory conduction.
Explain how the pancreas contributes to blood glucose homeostasis (mention hormones).
Pancreas releases insulin (lowers blood glucose by promoting uptake/storage) and glucagon (raises blood glucose by stimulating glycogenolysis/gluconeogenesis).
Identify the component of blood responsible for carrying oxygen and name the protein that binds oxygen.
Red blood cells; hemoglobin.
Explain how oxygen moves from alveoli into blood (name the driving process).
Diffusion down a partial pressure gradient (from higher PO2 in alveoli to lower PO2 in blood).
Explain how actin and myosin interact during muscle contraction (brief mechanism).
During contraction, myosin heads bind to actin filaments and pull them (power stroke) shortening the sarcomere; ATP is required for cross-bridge cycling
Describe the difference between the somatic and autonomic nervous systems (one key functional contrast).
Somatic controls voluntary skeletal muscle; autonomic controls involuntary functions and smooth muscle/cardiac glands (includes sympathetic and parasympathetic branches).
Describe how sweating helps regulate body temperature (include mechanism).
Sweating uses evaporation of water from skin to remove heat; vasodilation increases blood flow to skin, enhancing heat loss.
Describe atherosclerosis and one common consequence for blood flow and tissue health.
Atherosclerosis is buildup of fatty plaques in arterial walls; consequence: narrowed lumen that reduces blood flow and can cause ischemia, heart attack, or stroke.
Describe the sequence of air passage from outside the body to the alveoli (list major structures in order).
Nose/mouth → pharynx → larynx → trachea → bronchi → bronchioles → alveoli.
Describe two differences between smooth, cardiac, and skeletal muscle (structure or control).
Skeletal: striated, voluntary, multinucleated; Cardiac: striated, involuntary, intercalated discs, single central nuclei; Smooth: non-striated, involuntary, spindle-shaped cells.
Explain how a typical reflex arc works, including at least three components in order.
Sensory receptor → sensory neuron → integration center in spinal cord (interneuron) → motor neuron → effector (muscle); reflex bypasses brain for faster response.
A patient loses a large volume of blood quickly. Explain two homeostatic responses the body initiates to maintain blood pressure and perfusion.
Vasoconstriction and increased heart rate (sympathetic activation) to maintain blood pressure; plus vasopressin/ADH release to conserve water and increase vascular resistance; also activation of clotting cascades and fluid shifts to maintain circulating volume.