Political philosophy
Which political philosopher is most associated with the notion that "the ends justify the means" and political realism?
Niccolo Machiavelli
The UK held the very famous "Brexit" referendum in 2016. In 2014, it held another very important referendum. What was the subject, what was the result, and why might the result be different if another vote were held today?
Describe the U.K.'s electoral system, and how it influences party composition in the U.K.
The U.K. uses single-member districts with plurality ("first past the post" or "winner takes all") in elections to the House of Commons. This electoral system encourages consolidation into two broad political parties, namely the Conservatives ("Tories") and Labour parties. The Liberal Democratic party is considered a "center left" party and has greater support (~10%) than any third party in the U.S., but is underrepresented in parliament relative to its share of the vote, as it does not receive a plurality in many districts. Typically the Tories have been overrepresented in parliament relative to their share of the popular vote, and Labour has been underrepresented as the left-leaning vote is split between Labour and the Lib-Dems. However, in the 2024 landslide Labour victory, Labour was overrepresented and the Tories underrepresented compared with their portion of the popular vote.
NDRs come in a huge range of varieties. What do they have in common?
NDRs are characterized by:
-- The consolidation of political power in a small group of people
-- Government which is not constitutionally responsive to the people
-- Deep restrictions of individual freedom
-- Note that NDRs are often highly institutionalized and legitimate in the eyes of their people, and should not be viewed as "wrong" forms of government despite their incompatibility with American political culture.
Nondemocratic rule + clearly defined ideology + the use of violence and terror to achieve political goals =
Totalitarianism
What does Hobbes believe about human equality? What problems does human equality create in society, and how might these problems be resolved?
Hobbes believes all individuals are broadly equal in their capacity to harm one another, with each being able to kill another even if some differences of strength and ability exist. This equal capacity means that individuals have similar expectations of what they should be able to obtain in the world. These expectations naturally results in the chaotic state of nature, a "war of all against all" in which people strive for self-preservation and ultimately live lives which are nasty, brutish, and short. In order to escape this chaos, individuals must submit their sovereignty to a social contract which provides order and guarantees security, preferably (according to Hobbes) in the form of an absolute monarchy.
What is the "West Lothian Question"? Describe one policy step that has been taken in recent years to resolve this question.
The West Lothian Question refers to the perceived institutional imbalance in U.K. politics in which Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland have their own national parliaments, but England does not. As such, members of the U.K. Parliament from Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland can vote on issues affecting England (established by the U.K. Parliament) while English MPs cannot vote in the respective parliaments of the other nations.
The English Votes for English Laws (EVEL) procedure is one mechanism that has been introduced since 2015 to ensure only English MPs vote on laws pertaining only to England.
Describe two key documents in the early development of Britain's parliamentary system.
-- Magna Carta -- English nobles demanded that King John I sign the Magna Carta in 1215, which represented a promise to uphold the rights of England's nobility and resist monarchical absolutism as developed in neary every other European state.
-- Petition of Right -- Charles I was forced by Parliament to sign the Petition in 1628, ensuring Parliamentary rights and limiting royal power, in exchange for Parliamentary guarantee to fund the government
-- English Bill of Rights -- Issued by Parliament in 1689 to institutionalize the supremacy of Parliament over the monarchy
-- Notably, there is no "British constitution" and British common law is derived from a wide variety of historical documents and precedents
Describe the "resource curse". What might this tell us about the relationship between elites and nondemocratic rule?
The resource curse refers the observation that many nations with vast natural resource wealth are economically underdeveloped and nondemocratic. The theory proposes that natural resource wealth poses an inherent barrier to modernization and democratization, as the government does not need to collect taxes to run the economy and so is not concerned with taxation-representation tradeoffs and the needs of citizens. In most cases, resource wealth does not get redistributed across a broad population, and the needs of the middle class do not need to be considered by leaders. Wealth is highly concentrated in the hands of a small group, but access to this wealth is reliant on political positions, and so every effort will be made to maintain the political positions through nondemocratic means, in order to ensure access to the natural resources.
How might political culture discourage democratization in an NDR?
The idea of political culture is that societal norms and values are fundamentally different across different societies, and are very influential in forming political systems and outcomes. Certain societies may hold nondemocratic political values as a result of complex historical, intellectual, religious, or other ideological influences. Political culture may be very difficult to change over time, and may reject modern values such as secularism, individualism, and democracy, despite superficial trends towards Westernization.
Traditional Islamic societies may offer examples of deep political culture that is resistant to democratic movements. Chinese culture is also often cited as emphasizing collectivist and Confucian values which have made it more difficult for democratization to take root, although Taiwan may provide a counterexample to this idea. This is a complicated question to analyze!
How might Locke and Rousseau evaluate the separation of powers in modern states?
Locke and Rousseau would support the separation of powers as a means to limit concentrated political power, provided the legislative power remained independent and responsive to the will of the public. Rousseau was more inclined toward mass direct democracy, believing political institutions were prone to corruption and manipulation, and over time would undermine the direct voice of the people. Both would fear the consolidation of executive power, considering it less responsive to the people than legislative power.
How is the U.K.'s Prime Minister and cabinet determined, and what conditions exist for these people to hold office? How can the PM be removed from office?
The Prime Minister is the U.K.'s head of government, and the leader of the largest party in the House of Commons. The PM is named by the monarch, and then chooses the cabinet members. Both the PM and cabinet members must be elected members of the legislature. The PM can be removed through a parliamentary vote of no confidence at any time during their term.
The Labour Party was formed in 1900 as an outgrowth of the trade union movement, intending to expand the voice of Britain's working class in Parliament. It won its first major national victory in 1945, and since then has been the primary competitor of the Tories.
Labour is characterized by socialist ideology, but is moderate compared with other socialist parties around the world and favors gradual reforms, including a strong welfare state and some state ownership of key industries. It is generally compatible with the U.K.'s longstanding system of liberal capitalism, but favors more state involvement in the economy than the Tories.
Labour lost every election between 1979 and 1997 as Thatcher's Tories dominated U.K. politics, but Tony Blair's "Third Way" moderate policies led to consecutive victories in 1997, 2001, and 2005. Keir Starmer is currently the head of the party and the PM since Labour's landslide victory in the 2024 elections.
What is corporatism?
Corporatism is a form of co-optation in an NDR, in which the regime creates or authorizes particular organizations to represent state interests, while limiting or restricting unauthorized alternatives. This may include corporations, churches, unions, etc. If done subtly, effective corporatism mimics organic civil society while maintaining regime interests and suppressing political and cultural alternatives to the regime.
Why are military coups and military governments so common, and even appealing, in developing nations?
Military governments are typically based on a form of rational authority/legitimacy, as it is rare for militaries to promote a strong ideology or benefit from traditional legitimacy. In some cases military governments could have a charismatic leader, but in most instances military governments are characterized as bureaucratic or technocratic authoritarianism, with a strong emphasis on rational, technical expertise in governing and delivering public services, rather than emotional rhetoric and ideology.
Describe Smith's notion of the division of labor. What benefits does this division create in society, and what drawbacks? How was this idea of economic productivity implemented in the real world?
Using the example of the pin-maker, Smith describes the division of labor as dividing traditional skilled manufacturing processes into a series of unskilled, repetitive, mindless tasks.
The upside of the division of labor is an explosion of economic productivity as specialization leads to efficiencies in production and reduce labor and manufacturing costs per unit. The downside is that laborers become exploited in monotonous, unskilled, fungible roles, and sacrifice a sense of ownership in their trade as the ability to negotiate for improved wages and working conditions.
During and since the industrial revolution, capitalist systems have drawn on Smith's ideas to divide economic production into specialized roles (ie factories, assembly lines, mass production of consumer goods), resulting in massive expansion of production of material goods.
Describe the priorities and electoral results of political parties outside of the "Big Three".
While the SMD electoral system limits the influence of many smaller parties, regional parties including the Scottish National Party, the Welsh Plaid Cymru, and Sinn Fein have narrowly concentrated voters and have been able to win seats in Parliament. They primarily advocate for regional issues. The UK Independence Party was influential in promoting Brexit, and has since evolved into Reform UK, which won over 14% of the popular vote but only 5 seats in Parliament (out of 650).
What are "The Troubles" and how were they eventually resolved?
The Troubles refer to a violent conflict between the 1960s and 1998 during which North Irish extremist groups (primarily the Irish Republican Army) carried out violence against British civilian and military targets with the goal of unifying Northern Ireland with the Republic of Ireland.
There is a strong ethnic a religious component to the conflict, as Northern Ireland is split approximately 50/50 between English- and Scottish-origin Protestants, and Catholic Irish, and Catholics have faced discrimination in some circumstances.
In 1998, the British government and IRA negotiated the Good Friday Agreement which promised greater political rights for Catholics in Northern Ireland in exchange for IRA cessation of violence.
What form of political control is most closely associated with one-party rule? Which course country offers a compelling example of this dynamic?
Corporatism and clientelism are hallmarks of one-party rule, as the ruling party will attempt to closely manage the emergence of alternatives to the politlcal and social priorities of the regime. This may be through establishing party-rule organizations across society (Communist youth league, etc.) or through co-opting existing organizations as they become large enough to influence society. Often the ruling party will establish "cells" within the official structure of these organizations to monitor the organization's activities, promote party positions, and manage or eliminate dissent. China's one-party communist system is a classic example of widespread corporatism within the party-state structure.
Which forms of NDR are typically associated with a strong ideology, and which are not?
Strong ideology -- one-party rule, theocracy
Limited ideology -- personal/monarchical rule, military rule
What does Marx describe the inevitable result of life in a capitalist system?
Marx believes the proletariat, if valued only for their economic productivity, will be exploited by the bourgeoisie and face spiritual hopelessness, alienation, family breakdown, and general societal breakdown. As the number of miserable workers will far outnumber the number of well-off bourgeoisie, a popular overthrow of the capitalist system is inevitable, as part of the ongoing series of class struggles and revolutions that characterize all human history.
What is the core political-economic system of the U.K.? What are the historical roots of this system and how has the British economy evolved to the modern day?
The U.K. is the philosophical birthplace of economic liberalism as described by Adam Smith in The Wealth of Nations. The U.K. was the first nation to experience the industrial revolution at a large scale, and during the 1800s was considered the "workshop of the world" for its enormous industrial output, which combined with resource extraction through its large colonial empire made Britain the wealthiest nation in the world. Following World War II, Britain gave up most of its empire, and today Britain features a postindustrial economy characterized by the service sector, particularly financial services. The state has a limited role in the economy and there are few nationalized industries and limited regulation of the economy. The government provides a welfare state including the National Health Service, a form of universal government-provided healthcare.
What is referred to by the U.K.'s "special relationship" in geopolitics?
The "special relationship" refers to the close political, economic, military, and intelligence relationship between the United States and the United Kingdom. While the U.K. remains great international prestige based on its historical and cultural influence, today its economy and military power are limited and it is forced to defer to the United States on many foreign policy issues. With some exceptions, the U.K. has aligned with American foreign policy priorities in the 21st century, including the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan.
Describe trends in democratization since the year 1900.
In the early 20th century, democracies appeared to be under threat worldwide, as communist and fascist ideologies emerged throughout Europe and Asia. Following World War II, democracy expanded across much of Western Europe and East Asia, while Eastern Europe and certain Asian countries remained within the "Iron Curtain" and Soviet/Chinese Communist spheres of influence. The "third world" (unaligned with either the West or Soviet Union) saw democracies rise and fall as many post-colonial governments struggled to develop economically and politically, with periods of democracy intertwining with periods of nondemocratic rule in Latin America, Africa, and Asia.
With the fall of the Soviet Union, many former Soviet republics democratized to an extent, while other maintained features of nondemocratic rule. Nonetheless, the 1990s and early 2000s may be considered a relative "high water mark" for democratization.
Over the past fifteen years, Freedom House assessments of democratization have indicated that democracy has declined worldwide, across almost all geographic regions.
What type of NDR may be characterized by elections with declining competition, a preponderance of executive power and limited separation of powers, reliance on referenda to bypass the lawmaking process, and government control over the media?
Illiberal regime