Biological Basis of Behavior
Explain how neurons communicate with each other, including the roles of neurotransmitters.
Neurons communicate through electrical signals within the cell and chemical signals between cells. When an action potential reaches the axon terminal, neurotransmitters are released into the synapse and bind to receptors on the next neuron, influencing whether it will fire.
Explain the difference between encoding, storage, and retrieval in memory.
Encoding is getting information into memory, storage is keeping it over time, and retrieval is accessing it later. Memory depends on all three processes working effectively.
Explain the difference between classical conditioning and operant conditioning.
Classical conditioning involves learning through association between stimuli, while operant conditioning involves learning through consequences like rewards or punishments that shape behavior.
Explain how attribution theory affects how people interpret others’ behavior.
Attribution theory explains how people assign causes to behavior. People often make the fundamental attribution error by overemphasizing personality and underestimating situational factors.
Explain the biopsychosocial model of health.
The biopsychosocial model suggests that health is influenced by biological, psychological, and social factors. All three interact to affect overall well-being.
A student takes a drug that increases dopamine levels. Predict and explain one likely effect on behavior or mood.
Increased dopamine is associated with pleasure and reward, so the student may feel euphoria or increased motivation. This can reinforce behaviors, which is why dopamine is strongly linked to addiction.
A student forgets information learned the night before a test. Explain one reason why this might happen.
The student may have experienced encoding failure if they didn’t process the material deeply. Lack of sleep could also disrupt memory consolidation, making it harder to retrieve the information.
A parent rewards a child for doing homework. Explain the type of reinforcement and its likely effect.
This is positive reinforcement because a reward is added after the behavior. It will likely increase the likelihood that the child continues doing homework.
Describe conformity and explain one factor that increases the likelihood of conforming.
Conformity is adjusting behavior or beliefs to match a group. It is more likely when the group is unanimous, as people feel more pressure to fit in.
Describe one treatment approach for psychological disorders and explain how it works.
Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) helps individuals identify and change negative thought patterns. By altering thinking, it can improve emotions and behaviors.
Compare the roles of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems in a stressful situation.
The sympathetic nervous system activates the fight-or-flight response, increasing heart rate and alertness. The parasympathetic nervous system calms the body afterward, slowing heart rate and returning the body to homeostasis.
Describe how schemas influence thinking and memory, including one example.
Schemas are mental frameworks that organize information and shape expectations. For example, someone may assume a new teacher is strict based on past experiences, even without evidence.
Compare the stage-based theory of cognitive development with the sociocultural theory of cognitive development.
The stage-based theory suggests that children progress through fixed stages of development driven largely by biological maturation. In contrast, the sociocultural theory emphasizes that cognitive development is shaped by social interaction, culture, and guidance from others, such as learning within a supported range of ability.
Compare two major personality theories (e.g., psychodynamic vs. humanistic).
Psychodynamic theory emphasizes unconscious conflicts and early childhood experiences. Humanistic theory focuses on personal growth, free will, and self-actualization.
Explain how chronic stress can impact physical health.
Chronic stress keeps the body in a prolonged state of arousal, increasing cortisol levels. This can weaken the immune system and increase risk of illness.
Explain how the endocrine system interacts with the nervous system to respond to stress.
The hypothalamus signals the pituitary gland, which activates other glands like the adrenal glands. These release hormones such as cortisol and adrenaline, helping the body respond to stress over time.
Explain how heuristics can both help and hinder decision-making.
Heuristics allow people to make quick decisions efficiently. However, they can also lead to errors or biases, such as overestimating risks due to the availability heuristic.
Explain how attachment styles in early childhood can influence later relationships.
Secure attachment often leads to healthy, trusting relationships later in life. Insecure attachment may result in difficulties with trust, dependence, or emotional regulation in relationships.
Explain how stereotypes and in-group bias can lead to prejudice and discrimination.
Stereotypes are generalized beliefs about a group, while in-group bias favors one’s own group. Together, they can create negative attitudes (prejudice) and unfair actions (discrimination) toward others.
A person is diagnosed with depression. Explain how both biological and cognitive factors could contribute.
Biologically, depression may be linked to neurotransmitter imbalances like low serotonin. Cognitively, negative thought patterns and pessimistic beliefs can reinforce depressive symptoms.
A person experiences damage to the frontal lobe. Predict two possible behavioral changes and explain why.
The person may show poor decision-making and lack of impulse control because the frontal lobe controls executive functions. They may also have personality changes, such as inappropriate social behavior or reduced emotional regulation.
A witness confidently misremembers an event. Explain this using memory reconstruction and the misinformation effect.
Memory is reconstructive, meaning it can be altered over time. The misinformation effect occurs when misleading information after an event changes how it is remembered, leading the witness to confidently recall incorrect details.
A student develops a fear of dogs after being bitten once. Explain this using classical conditioning AND biological preparedness.
The dog bite acts as an unconditioned stimulus causing fear, which becomes associated with dogs (conditioned stimulus). Biological preparedness makes it easier to develop fear of potentially dangerous animals, increasing the strength of the response.
A person acts differently around different groups of people. Explain this using the social-cognitive perspective of personality.
The social-cognitive perspective emphasizes the interaction between personal traits and environment. Behavior changes based on situational cues, meaning personality is flexible rather than fixed.
Evaluate the ethical considerations psychologists must follow when diagnosing and treating mental disorders.
Psychologists must ensure confidentiality, informed consent, and accurate diagnosis. Misdiagnosis or bias can harm clients, so ethical guidelines help protect their well-being and rights.