Memory
This process involves getting information into memory.
Encoding
Encoding is the first step of memory formation. Information must be transformed into a form the brain can process before it can be stored.
A mental shortcut used to make judgments quickly and efficiently.
Heuristic
Heuristics reduce cognitive effort by simplifying complex decisions. Although efficient, they can increase the likelihood of systematic errors in judgment.
The smallest distinctive sound unit in a language.
Phoneme
Phonemes differentiate meaning between words. Changing a single phoneme can alter the entire meaning of a word.
Intelligence involving accumulated knowledge and vocabulary.
Crystallized intelligence
Crystallized intelligence reflects knowledge acquired through education and experience.
This psychologist studied memory distortion and the misinformation effect.
Elizabeth Loftus
Loftus demonstrated that eyewitness memories can be altered by misleading information after an event.
The tendency to recall the first and last items in a list better than the middle items.
Serial position effect
The first items benefit from more rehearsal, but the last items benefit from still in working memory.
A step-by-step procedure that guarantees a solution if followed correctly.
Algorithm
Algorithms evaluate possible solutions. Unlike heuristics, they prioritize accuracy over speed and will eventually produce the correct answer.
The smallest unit of language that carries meaning.
Morpheme
Morphemes include words, prefixes, and suffixes that contribute meaning to language.
Intelligence involving reasoning and solving unfamiliar problems.
Fluid intelligence
Fluid intelligence involves abstract thinking and problem solving independent of prior knowledge.
This linguist proposed that humans possess an innate capacity for language acquisition.
Noam Chomsky
Chomsky argued that language development cannot be explained solely through learning and reinforcement.
While studying vocabulary, a student groups words into categories such as animals, foods, and sports.
Chunking
Chunking organizes information into meaningful units, increasing the amount that can be held in working memory.
Maysa cannot think of any use for a paperclip other than holding papers together.
functional fixedness
Functional fixedness occurs when prior experience limits an individual’s ability to perceive alternative uses for familiar objects.
A child says “I goed to the park” instead of “I went to the park.”
Overgeneralization
The child is applying a learned grammatical rule to an irregular verb, demonstrating active language acquisition.
A psychologist argues that an athlete, musician, mathematician, and therapist may each possess distinct intellectual strengths that cannot be fully measured by one test score.
Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences Theory
Gardner proposed that intelligence consists of multiple independent abilities, challenging the idea that a single factor can explain all cognitive performance.
This psychologist proposed the concept of a general intelligence factor known as g.
Charles Spearman
Spearman observed that performance across different cognitive tasks was positively correlated and proposed a common underlying intelligence.
Fenet remembers seeing broken glass before a car crash even though the glass shattered during the crash.
Misinformation effect
Post-event information altered the witness’s memory, demonstrating that memory is reconstructive rather than a aligned recording.
A researcher strongly believes that social media causes depression. During the study, the researcher focuses on evidence supporting the hypothesis while dismissing data that suggests no relationship exists.
Confirmation bias
Confirmation bias influences information processing by causing individuals to selectively seek, interpret, and remember evidence that confirms preexisting beliefs.
Researchers observe that speakers of different languages categorize colors differently because their languages divide the color spectrum in unique ways.
Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis
Linguistic relativity proposes that language influences how individuals perceive, organize, and interpret their experiences.
Ms. P and Ms. Donovan receive identical IQ scores. One excels at solving unfamiliar logical puzzles, while the other demonstrates an extensive vocabulary and broad factual knowledge.
fluid intelligence and crystallized intelligence
Both contribute to overall intelligence, they rely on different cognitive abilities and often develop differently across the lifespan.
This psychologist proposed that intelligence consists of analytical, creative, and practical components.
Robert Sternberg
Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory expanded intelligence beyond academic abilities by including real-world problem solving and creativity.
Bethel can recognize information on a psychology multiple-choice test but cannot recall it during a free-response test.
Retrieval failure
Recognition requires less effort because cues are provided, while recall depends on independently retrieving information from long-term memory.
After unsuccessfully trying several mathematical formulas, a student suddenly recognizes a previously overlooked relationship between variables and is able to solve the problem.
Insight
Research suggests insight often occurs when individuals mentally restructure a problem and view it from a new perspective.
A child isolated from language exposure during early development later struggles to master grammar despite years of instruction.
Critical period hypothesis
The critical period suggests that language acquisition depends on exposure during a biologically sensitive developmental window. Missing that period can result in lasting deficits.
A psychologist argues that an individual who can lead a team, resolve conflicts, and adapt successfully to everyday challenges may be intelligent even if they do not score exceptionally high on traditional IQ tests.
Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
Sternberg proposed that intelligence extends beyond academic ability and includes practical intelligence, which enables individuals to navigate real-world situations effectively.
A psychologist argues that intelligence cannot be reduced to one score because people demonstrate strengths across linguistic, musical, spatial, interpersonal, and other domains.
Howard Gardner
Gardner’s theory rejected a single measure of intelligence and proposed multiple independent intelligences, fundamentally challenging traditional IQ-based approaches.