Chapter 1
What is anatomy? What is physiology? What is the Principle of Complementarity of Structure and Function? Give an example.
Anatomy is the study of the structure of living organisms.
Physiology is the study of the function of living organisms.
The Principle of Complementarity of Structure and Function states that function reflects structure and structure dictates function. (Ex., The valves of the heart have flaps that only open one way (structure) to ensure unidirectional blood flow (function).)
What is the octet rule? How does it relate to the stability of an atom?
The octet rule is that an atom is most stable when its valence shell is completely full with eight electrons.
How do enzymes work? What type of protein are they?
Enzymes lower the activation energy needed to start the reaction, → increase in speed (catalyst). They are globular proteins.
What are isotonic, hypertonic, and hypotonic solutions + what is their effect on a red blood cell?
Isotonic solution: same solute concentration inside and outside. Cells retain their normal size and shape (the same % of water goes in and out)
Hypertonic solution: lower solute concentration inside the cell than outside. Cells lose water by osmosis and shrink.
Hypotonic solution: higher solute concentration inside the cell than outside. Cells take in water by osmosis until they swell and burst.
What are the types of vesicular transport and the types of endocytosis?
Endocytosis, Exocytosis
Endocytosis - Phagocytosis, Pinocytosis, Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis
What's the difference between a positive and negative feedback loop? Give an example of each
Positive feedback loops AMPLIFY change to drive a process to completion. (Ex., contractions getting closer during birth)
What is the difference between a cation vs anion?
Cations are positively charged because they lose electrons (cats are paw-sitive!).
Anions are negatively charged because they gain electrons.
What is glycogen, why is it important, and where is it stored?
Glycogen is the carbohydrate storage form used by animals. It is stored in the liver/skeletal muscles. It provides a rapid and reliable source of energy for cells.
What are the 3 types of cell junctions + examples of each?
Tight junctions: “impermeable junction,” prevents fluid and most molecules from moving between cells (keeps fluid in, like in the bladder or GI tract)
Desmosomes: "anchoring junction” cells interlock but have some ‘give’ to reduce the possibility of tearing under tension (epidermis of skin)
Gap junctions: “communicating junction” spread ions/simple sugars between other cells + allow electrical signals to be passed quickly (cardiac and smooth muscle cells)
What is glycolysis? Where does it happen? Does it require O2? What is the net ATP?
Glycolysis is the breakdown of glucose. It happens in the cytoplasm and does not require oxygen. The net ATP produced is 2.
What are the necessary life functions? What are the survival needs?
Necessary Life Functions → maintaining boundaries, movement, responsiveness, digestion, metabolism, excretion, reproduction, growth
Survival Needs → nutrients, oxygen, water, temperature, atmospheric pressure
What is the difference between solutions, colloids, and suspensions? Name the characteristics of each.
A solution is when the solute particles are very tiny; they do not settle or scatter light (mineral water)
A colloid is when the solute particles are larger in a solution and scatter light, but they do not settle (jello).
A suspension is when solute particles are very large; they settle and may scatter light (blood + blood plasma).
What are the 4 main macromolecules? What are they made up of? What are some specific examples of each?
Carbohydrates (sugars and starches): monosaccharides, disaccharides, polysaccharides
Lipids (fats): triglycerides, phospholipids, steroids, eicosanoids
Proteins (amino acids): polypeptides
Nucleic acids (nucleotides): DNA, RNA
Define + identify the function of: cytosol, ribosomes, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes.
Cytosol: gel-like solution of water + other molecules (proteins, salts, sugars)
Ribosomes: made up of protein + rRNA; have a main role in protein synthesis
Golgi apparatus: modifies, concentrates, packages proteins and lipids from rough ER (traffic director)
Lysosomes: membranous “bags” with digestive enzymes that digest toxins + get rid of waste in the cell
Where does the Krebs cycle take place? How much ATP is produced? Where does the electron transport chain take place? How much ATP is produced?
It takes place in the mitochondria; it produces 2 ATP. The electron transport chain takes place in the inner mitochondrial membrane; it produces 32-34 ATP.
What are buffers?
A buffer is a chemical or system of chemicals that resists dramatic changes in pH when acids or bases are added to a body fluid.
What are the 3 types of chemical reactions?
Synthesis: smaller particles are bonded to form larger, complex molecules (A+B→AB)
Decomposition: bonds are broken in larger molecules resulting in smaller, less complex molecules (AB→A+B)
Exchange: bonds are both made and broken (AB+C→AC+B)
Describe the 4 levels of protein structure (what it does and what it looks like).
Primary structure: the simplest form; it provides the blueprint for how the protein will fold and function (the amino acid sequence in a polypeptide chain). Secondary structure: initial folding; provides a framework for the type of protein it is (coiled alpha helix or pleated beta sheets). Tertiary structure: provides a unique, fully folded 3d shape that dictates protein-specific function (forms a globular molecule). Quaternary structure: how 2+ different tertiary polypeptide chains interact with each other → a more complex function
What are the 6 steps of mitosis in the cell cycle? (Bonus points for the location of the chromosomes in each phase)
REMEMBER PMAT
Early prophase: chromosomes condense into tight, visible structures + spindle starts to form outside the nucleus
Late prophase: nucleus “breaks down” + spindle microtubules attach to hormones
Metaphase: chromosomes line up along the middle equator of the cell
Anaphase: sister chromatids pull apart towards opposite poles of the cell (use spindle fibers)
Telophase: nucleus starts to form around the separated sets of chromosomes
Cytokinesis: the cytoplasm divides and pinches the cells into two identical daughter cells
Describe the process of osmosis (water concentration and solute concentration).
Osmosis is the passive movement of water across a selectively permeable membrane.
Water Concentration: Moves from HIGH water concentration to LOW water concentration.
Solute Concentration: Moves from LOW solute concentration to HIGH solute concentration.
REMEMBER: Water follows solute (flows toward higher concentration)
Name as many as you can:
Regional terms, directional terms, body planes, body cavities
Answers will vary
What affects the rate of chemical reactions? What affects the rate of diffusion?
Temperature, concentration of reactants, catalyst (enzymes), particle size (only for diffusion)
What is DNA & what bases does it have? What is RNA & what bases does it have?
DNA is the genetic material of cells in the nucleus; it contains adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine. DNA replicates itself during cell division + provides instructions for protein production in the body. RNA is used to make proteins from DNA instructions outside the nucleus; it contains adenine, guanine, cytosine, and uracil. The 3 types of RNA are mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA.
What are the components of a plasma membrane?
Polar + hydrophilic head; nonpolar hydrophobic tail; integral proteins (go through entire membrane); peripheral proteins (only at the top of the membrane); glycocalyx (sugars outside cell surface); cholesterol
What particles are involved in simple diffusion? Which are involved in facilitated diffusion?
For simple diffusion, particles must be small, nonpolar (hydrophobic), or uncharged to slip directly through the phospholipid bilayer's fatty acid tails.
For facilitated diffusion, particles are either charged, polar (hydrophilic), or too large to cross the hydrophobic core of the membrane on their own. They require channel proteins or carrier proteins to cross.