Lymph
Which organ is primarily responsible for filtering pathogens from the blood?
Spleen
List the 4 cardinal signs of inflammation.
Heat, swelling, redness, pain
Where do B cells mature?
Bone marrow
True or False: Adults generate more breaths per minute vs. adults.
False: Children are smaller & have higher metabolism rates.
True or False: Normal ventilation requires the exhalation muscles to be activated.
False
What is the name of the vessels that carry lymph into the lymph node?
True or False: Cytotoxic T cells are involved in the immune response to bacterial infection.
False: They respond to viruses, cancer, & non-self antigens.
List the 3 types of hypersensitivity disorders.
2. Delayed-type hypersensitivity (Type IV)
3. Autoimmune disorders
List & describe the 2 main factors influencing ventilation?
1. Airway resistance: Anything hindering airflow eg. inflammation, mucus, tumors, bronchoconstriction, & bronchodilation
2. Pulmonary compliance: Alveolar surface tension (Surfactant), distensibility, & thoracic wall flexibility.
Define hypoxemia, hypoxia, & hypercapnia.
Hypoxemia: Low O2 levels in the blood
Hypoxia: Low oxygen levels in the body / a tissue
Hypercapnia: High CO2 levels in the blood
What drives interstitial fluid to enter lymphatic capillaries?
Hydrostatic pressure
What are dendritic cells? List an example of a condition that involves them.
Dendritic cells are an immune cell that lives in the skin. They find allergens & activate helper T cells to produce an immune response in delayed-type hypersensitivity (Type IV). Contact dermatitis (Eg. poison ivy, nickel, latex).
Explain how HIV destroys the immune system's function.
HIV attaches to CD4 molecules on a helper T cell's surface & enters it. This wipes out helper T cells, which wipes out the immune system response. This makes an individual much more susceptible to infections.
When the lungs expand, does air want to flow in or out of them?
In: Increasing volume of the lungs decreases pressure in them. Air wants to flow from high to low pressure so it flows from the outside into the body.
Describe the impact of emphysema on respiration and how it affects gas exchange.
Emphysema destroys the small alveolar pockets, which leaves large pockets in the lungs. This decreases the surface area for gas exchange and results in difficulty breathing and low oxygen levels.
Edema is likely to occur when someone suffers a myocardial infarction (aka. heart attack). How is this possible?
Since a part of the heart is damaged, blood flow may be restricted as SV or contractility is decreased. To maintain proper blood flow to the tissues, the heart may compensate by contracting more frequently, which raises blood pressure. Since blood pressure is correlated to hydrostatic pressure, more fluid is pushed out of the capillaries & builds up in the interstitial space, which causes edema.
List the names & functions of the 5 type of antibodies.
IgG: Most common type of antibody; crosses placenta
IgA: Tears, saliva, sweat, & breast milk
IgM: Largest antibody; functions as B cell receptor
IgE: Allergic responses; controls histamine release
IgD: B cell receptor
What are leukocytosis & diapedesis?
Leukocytosis: Increased production & recruitment of neutrophils & monocytes that helps clean up damaged area.
Diapedesis: Increased permeability of capillaries to allow space between endothelial cells for neutrophils to squeeze through.
CO2 combines with water using the carbonic anhydrase enzyme. It becomes carbonic acid, which is unstable, so it converts into H+ ions and bicarbonate.
H+ concentration determines blood pH.
Why aren’t goblet cells found in alveoli?
Secretion of mucus thickens the respiratory membrane, which impairs oxygen diffusion.
Grandpa suffers significant lymphedema in his leg. Which pressure will try to compensate, and how is his immune system affected by a reduced flow of lymph?
Because the swelling prevents normal rates of fluid absorption, hydrostatic pressure is increased to try to push fluid back into the lymph capillaries & get it flowing. Edema increases risk of infection because the lymphatic vessels carry immune cells which are supposed to circulate through the body, but edema blocks its flow.
List all the leukocyte types & 1 function each.
1. Neutrophils: Phagocytosis & chemotaxis
2. Lymphocyte: Destroy virus-infected cells & cancer cells; coordinate immune system; secrete antibodies
3. Monoytes: Phagocytocize pathogens, dead cells, & debris
4. Eosinophils: Phagocytocize allergens & antigen-antibody complexes; combat parasites
5. Basophils: Release inflammatory mediators
First response: Low antibody number, takes longer to take effect, needs helper T cell activation.
Second response: Plasma B cells can be immediately produced, lasts longer, antibodies are more effective, may not even feel sick at all!
Dr. Boyce is on a run so her breathing rate quickens & is deeper. What is hemoglobin doing to maintain increased activity in her body, & how do temperature, pH, PCO2, & BPG levels affect this?
Hemoglobin is unloading O2 to the tissues at a greater rate. Higher temperature, lower pH/increased acidity, higher PCO2, & higher BPG cause hemoglobin to unload more O2 molecules.
Peripheral chemorecepters on the aortic body or carotid bodies detect low levels of O2. They send signals to the VRG to increase the rate & depth of breathing, which helps replenish low O2 levels.