Political History
This principle, established by the U.S. Constitution, divides government authority into three distinct branches: the legislative, executive, and judicial branches. Each branch has its own specific powers and responsibilities, ensuring that no single branch becomes too powerful. The system of separation of powers is designed to maintain a system of checks and balances, where each branch can limit the actions of the others, safeguarding individual liberties and preventing tyranny.
Separation of Powers
This joint-stock company was chartered by King James I in 1606 to establish English colonies in North America. It played a central role in the founding of Jamestown in 1607, the first permanent English settlement, and introduced the profit-driven model of colonization. Its efforts laid the foundation for English expansion in the Americas, including the development of tobacco as a cash crop and early experiments with self-governance.
Virginia Company
This religious revival movement, which swept through the American colonies in the 18th century, emphasized personal faith, emotional preaching, and a direct relationship with God. It challenged traditional religious authority and led to the growth of new denominations, such as Methodism and Baptistism. The movement also had social and political effects, encouraging ideas of equality and individual rights, which contributed to the development of a unique American identity.
Great Awakening
This 1676 uprising in Virginia involved a group of settlers who were frustrated with the colonial government's failure to protect them from Native attacks and its favoritism toward wealthy landowners. The rebellion, which included enslaved people, highlighted the growing social and economic divisions between the elite and poorer colonists, as well as tensions over the expansion of settlement into Native lands. Though the rebellion was suppressed, it influenced the shift toward a greater reliance on African slavery as a labor source, replacing indentured servitude.
Bacon’s Rebellion
This law established a system for governing the western territories and admitting new states into the Union, following the United States' independence. It outlined the process for territories to become states once their population reached a certain level and ensured the protection of civil liberties and the prohibition of slavery in the new territories. The ordinance was significant for shaping the expansion of the United States and laying the groundwork for future statehood in the American West.
Northwest Ordinance of 1787
This event, occurring in 1688, involved the peaceful overthrow of King James II of England, who was replaced by his daughter Mary II and her husband, William of Orange. It marked a significant shift in power, as Parliament gained more control over the monarchy, ensuring that future rulers would govern with the consent of Parliament. The revolution influenced colonial governance, reinforcing ideas about individual rights and limited government in the English colonies.
Glorious Revolution
This economic theory emphasized that colonies existed to benefit the mother country by supplying raw materials and purchasing finished goods. It encouraged governments to regulate trade, establish monopolies, and maintain a favorable balance of trade to increase national wealth and power. The system played a key role in shaping colonial policies, including trade restrictions and the expansion of European influence in the Americas.
Mercantilism
This term refers to the young women who worked in textile mills in the Northeastern United States during the early 19th century, particularly in Massachusetts. They were often from rural areas and worked long hours under harsh conditions, but the job provided them with wages and a degree of independence. The experience of mill girls helped shape the labor movement and sparked early discussions on workers' rights and women's roles in the workforce.
Mill Girls
This conflict in the 1630s involved English colonists and their Native allies fighting against a powerful Indigenous group in present-day Connecticut. It resulted in the near-destruction of this Native nation and demonstrated the violent methods colonists used to secure land and dominance in New England. The war exemplifies the deep tensions and escalating violence between European settlers and Indigenous peoples during the colonial period.
Pequot War
This invention, created by Eli Whitney in 1793, revolutionized cotton production by efficiently separating cotton fibers from seeds. It dramatically increased the speed of cotton processing, leading to the growth of the cotton industry and the expansion of slavery in the South. The cotton gin played a pivotal role in shaping the U.S. economy, contributing to the rise of cotton as a dominant cash crop and intensifying sectional divisions over slavery.
Cotton Gin
This 1754 proposal, created by Benjamin Franklin, suggested that the American colonies unite for mutual defense and economic cooperation during the French and Indian War. It called for a central governing body to oversee issues such as defense, trade, and relations with Native American tribes. Though it was rejected by both the colonies and the British government, it laid the groundwork for future efforts at colonial unity and was an early step toward the creation of a unified American government.
Albany Plan of Union
This economic plan, proposed by Henry Clay in the early 19th century, aimed to strengthen the U.S. economy through a combination of protective tariffs, a national bank, and internal improvements like roads and canals. The plan sought to promote American industry, unify the national economy, and reduce dependence on foreign goods. While it was partially implemented, it sparked debates over federal power and regional interests, particularly between the industrial North and the agricultural South.
American System
This legal doctrine in colonial and early American society held that a woman's legal rights and obligations were subsumed by her husband's upon marriage. Under coverture, married women could not own property, sign contracts, or make legal decisions independently. It reinforced traditional gender roles and limited women's rights, shaping the legal and social status of women for much of American history.
Coverture
This 1680 uprising was led by Indigenous peoples in present-day New Mexico against Spanish colonizers who imposed their religion and disrupted their traditional way of life. It was one of the most successful Indigenous rebellions in North America, temporarily expelling Spanish settlers and reasserting Native cultural practices. The event highlights the resistance to European colonization and the ongoing struggle over cultural and political control in the region.
Pueblo Revolt
This conflict, lasting from 1754 to 1763, was part of the global Seven Years' War and involved Britain and France, with Native American tribes allying with both sides. The war was fought over territorial disputes in North America, particularly in the Ohio River Valley, and ended with Britain gaining control of vast new territories. The war's outcome significantly increased British debt, leading to new taxes and policies that strained relations with the American colonies, eventually contributing to the American Revolution.
French and Indian War
These were a series of 85 essays written by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay under the pseudonym "Publius" to promote the ratification of the U.S. Constitution. The essays explained the benefits of a strong central government, addressed concerns about the potential for tyranny, and argued for the system of checks and balances. They played a crucial role in influencing public opinion and securing support for the Constitution during the ratification process.
Federalist Papers
This was the first protective tariff enacted by the United States, designed to shield American industries from foreign competition, particularly British goods, after the War of 1812. The tariff imposed duties on imported goods, making them more expensive and encouraging Americans to buy domestically produced items. It marked a shift in U.S. economic policy towards supporting domestic manufacturing and played a role in the rise of the American Industrial Revolution.
Tariff of 1816
This term refers to the widespread transfer of goods, people, plants, animals, and diseases between the Americas, Europe, and Africa following European exploration and colonization. It dramatically reshaped societies by introducing new crops and livestock, which transformed diets and economies, while also spreading devastating diseases that decimated Indigenous populations. This exchange is a key factor in understanding the profound social, cultural, and ecological impacts of European contact with the Americas.
Columbian Exchange
This conflict, also known as King Philip's War, occurred in the 1670s when Indigenous groups in New England, led by Metacom, rose up against English settlers and their encroachment on Native lands. It was one of the bloodiest and most devastating wars in early American history, resulting in heavy casualties on both sides and the near-collapse of several English colonies. The war highlighted the growing resistance to colonial expansion and the harsh consequences for Indigenous populations in the region.
Metacom’s War
This provision in the U.S. Constitution, established in 1787, determined that each enslaved person would be counted as three-fifths of a person for purposes of taxation and representation in Congress. It was a compromise between Southern and Northern states, allowing Southern states to increase their political power without fully recognizing enslaved people as citizens. The clause reinforced the institution of slavery by giving slaveholding states greater influence while perpetuating the dehumanization of enslaved individuals.
Three-Fifths Clause
This period, roughly from 1817 to 1825, was marked by a sense of national unity and political harmony following the War of 1812. During this time, the Democratic-Republican Party dominated politics, and there was little partisan conflict, as the Federalist Party had largely dissolved. However, despite the outward appearance of unity, underlying economic issues and regional tensions, particularly over slavery, would soon lead to greater political divisions.
Era of Good Feelings
This term refers to the British policy of allowing the American colonies considerable freedom in their internal affairs and trade, as long as they remained loyal to the crown and contributed to Britain’s economic interests. This informal approach to colonial governance helped foster a sense of independence and self-reliance in the colonies. The end of salutary neglect after the French and Indian War, through stricter enforcement of laws and taxes, contributed to growing colonial resentment and the push for independence.
Salutary Neglect
This economic transformation in England involved consolidating small landholdings into larger farms, often for more efficient agricultural production. It displaced many rural workers, forcing them to migrate to cities or seek opportunities abroad, including in the American colonies. This movement contributed to the growing population of landless laborers who became part of the colonial workforce and shaped early patterns of migration and settlement.
Enclosure Movement
This 1786-1787 uprising, led by Daniel Shays, involved struggling farmers in Massachusetts protesting economic hardships, high taxes, and the threat of debt imprisonment. The rebellion exposed the weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation, as the national government was unable to effectively respond to the unrest. The event highlighted the need for a stronger central government, leading to the drafting of the U.S. Constitution in 1787.
Shay’s Rebellion
This Spanish priest and historian is known for advocating for the rights of Indigenous peoples during the early period of Spanish colonization in the Americas. He criticized the brutal treatment of Native populations under the encomienda system and argued for more humane policies, bringing attention to the moral and ethical implications of colonization. His writings influenced debates in Spain about colonial practices and contributed to the eventual passage of laws aimed at protecting Indigenous communities.
Bartolomé de las Casas