Reinforcement
What is Positive Reinforcement?
Stimulus is added that increases the future frequency of the behavior
What is an MO?
Environmental variable that alters the reinforcing effectiveness of a stimulus and the current frequency of all behavior that have been reinforced by that stimulus.
Strengthen but also weaken the value of a consequence as a reinforcer.
The term setting event has also been used to describe some of the variables that may fit under the definition of an MO.
What is a prompt?
Supplementary antecedent stimuli used to occasion a correct response in the presence of an SD (that will eventually control behavior).
Response prompts operate directly on the response.
Stimulus prompts operate directly on the antecedent stimuli
Describe simple discrimination
Enhancing or diminishing target responses by systematically using differential reinforcement to promote simple stimulus control.
Presenting a single discriminative stimulus to evoke or reduce a particular behavior.
The term contingency is involved
A discriminative stimulus à response à consequence
An antecedent evokes or abates the behavior.
Describe planned and unplanned models
Planned models
Pre-arranged antecedent stimuli that help learners acquire new skills
Shows the learner exactly what to do
Unplanned models
Occur in everyday social interactions.
Name a couple of factors that affect reinforcement
The time delay between the behavior and SR+
The context/stimulus conditions in which SR+ occurs
The “motivation” of the person, i.e., “How bad s/he wants it.”
What is the difference between an SD and MO
An SD controls a type of behavior because it has been related to the differential availability of an effective reinforcer for that type of behavior.
MO’s are related to the differential reinforcing effectiveness of a particular event.
Describe the difference between response and stimulus prompts
Response Prompts
Verbal instructions
Vocal
Non-vocal (e.g., written)
Modeling
A demonstration of the desired behavior
Physical Guidance
Partially physically guide the student’s movements
Stimulus Prompts
Movement cues
Pointing, tapping, touching, looking at
Position cues
Place one stimulus closer to the student
Redundance
Stimulus or response dimensions are paired with correct choice
Describe Conditional Discrimination
More complex than just teaching a fine discrimination.
Identifying when it is appropriate to engage in a particular response.
Also deals with more complex behaviors
Behaviors that can be appropriate in one context but inappropriate in another
What is shaping?
A process in which one systematically and differentially reinforces successive approximations to a terminal behavior.
Differential reinforcement:
Some members of a response class are reinforced (responses that are successively closer to the terminal behavior)
Other members of that response class (responses that are not closer to the terminal behavior) are not reinforced.
Successive Approximations:
The sequence of new response classes that emerge during the shaping process as a result of differential reinforcement.
Describe Rule Governed Behavior
Behaviors controlled by a rule (i.e., a verbal statement of an antecedent-behavior-consequence contingency) that enables human behavior to come under indirect control of temporarily remote or improbable but potentially significant consequences.
Indicators:
–No immediate consequence apparent
–Response-consequence delay > 30 s
–Large increase in frequency of the behavior occurs following one instance of reinforcement
–No observable consequence for the behavior exists (including no automatic reinforcement), but the ‘rule’ does
Describe an EO and an AO
Establishing Operations (EO’s)
–Increases the effectiveness of a stimulus as a reinforcer
–Usually involves decreased access to the stimulus (deprivation)
Abolishing Operation (AO’s)
–Decreases the effectiveness of a stimulus as a reinforcer
–Usually involves having increased access to the stimulus (satiation)
Describe the processes for transferring stimulus control: Most to Least Prompting, Least to Most Prompting, Graduated Guidance
Most-to-least prompts
Begin with the prompt that evokes the response and gradually fade to less intrusive prompts.
Physical guidance
Modeling
Verbal instruction
Natural stimulus
Least-to-most prompts
Provide the participant with an opportunity to perform the response with the least amount of assistance on each trial
Participant receives greater degrees of assistance with each successive trial without a correct response
Graduated guidance
Immediately fade physical prompts
Follow participant closely with hands
Gradually increase distance between hands and participant
Describe the process for match to sample
Matching two stimuli that are the same (i.e., two pictures of a girl).
Present the sample stimulus (i.e., picture of the girl)
Present other comparison stimuli (i.e., picture of a boy and a girl)
Reinforce when the learner matches the picture of the girl (sample stimulus) to the picture of the girl (comparison stimulus).
This exemplifies identity matching-to-sample.
Describe the two shaping methods
Across response topographies
Topography of behavior changes during shaping
Behaviors are still members of the same response class
Within response topographies
Topography of behavior remains constant
Another measurable dimension of behavior is changed (e.g., duration of the behavior)
Describe the four term contingency and provide an example
MO-SD-Response-Reinforcement
Describe value and behavior altering effects
Value-altering effects:
MO = establishing operation (EO)
An increase in the reinforcing effectiveness of some stimulus, object, or event
MO = abolishing operation (AO)
A decrease in reinforcing effectiveness of some stimulus, object, or event
Behavior-altering effects:
Evocative effect
Increase in the current frequency of behavior that has been reinforced by some stimulus, object, or event
Abative effect
Decrease in the current frequency of behavior that has been reinforced by some stimulus, object, or event
What is Errorless Learning?
•Teaching method designed to minimize learner errors that are used to teach discriminations.
•Most-to-least prompting and fading methods are suitable to teach new skills without errors.
What is stimulus Equivalence
A set of arbitrary, symbolic stimuli has formed an equivalence class if all stimuli in that set are reflexive, symmetrical, and transitive with each other.
Equivalence classes result from stimulus-equivalence training.
Those stimulus-control relations that emerge without being explicitly trained are called emergent relations.
Describe a Task Analysis
Breaking a complex skill or series of behaviors into smaller, teachable units
The product of a task analysis is a series of sequentially ordered steps.
Describe two different stimulus/reinforcer assessments
Paired Stimulus
Multiple Stimulus
Single stimulus
Concurrent schedule reinforcer assessment
Multiple schedule reinforcer assessment
Progressive-Ratio reinforcer assessment
Describe the 3 Conditioned Motivating Operations
CMO-S:
Previously neutral stimulus that acquired its MO effects by being paired with a UMO.
CMO-R:
Any stimulus that acquires MO effectiveness by preceding some form of worsening or improvement.
Exemplified a “warning stimulus” in an escape-avoidance procedure.
The organism learns to respond during the onset of the “warning stimulus” to avoid the aversive stimulus.
CMO-T:
An environmental variable establishes (or abolishes) the reinforcing effectiveness of another stimulus and evokes (or abates) the behavior that has been reinforced by that other stimulus.
Describe ethical considerations related to use of prompts
Evaluation of all individualistic elements must be conducted to determine appropriate procedures and specific prompt levels
Negative outcomes can result from incorrect use of prompting procedures
Negative outcomes can include: development of learned responses, prompt dependency, learned helplessness, lack of independence
Prompts should be faded at the earliest appropriate moment
Describe reflexivity, symmetry, and transitivity
Reflexivity refers to the results of simple, non-symbolic matching to sample.
Matching the picture of the girl to the picture of the girl.
Picture of the girl (A) = picture of the girl (A)
Symmetry
Reversibility of the sample stimulus and the comparison stimulus.
Teach two forms of symmetry.
If A = B, then B = A OR if B = C, then C = B
Ex. Picture of the girl (A) = written word “girl” (B) & written word “girl” (B) = picture of the girl (A)
Ex. Written word “girl” (B) & spoken word ”girl” (C) & spoken word “girl” (c) = written word “girl” (B)
Transitivity
In this sequence, the learner makes the jump in learning A = C relations:
If A = B, and
B = C, then
A = C
Ex. Picture of the girl (A) = written word “girl” (B), written word “girl” (B) = spoken word “girl” (C), THEREFORE picture of the girl (A) = spoken word “girl” (C).
Describe Forward Chaining, Backward Chaining, Total task chaining, Backward Chaining with Leap Aheads
Forward Chaining: Task is taught in the order that it occurs in naturally. Each step needs to be completed before the next step can begin. Reinforcement is provided after completion of each step. Contrived reinforcers often necessary
Backward Chaining: Teacher/Instructor completes all steps except for the last one. Reinforcement delivered after completion of the last step. As the learner progresses, the teacher completes less steps
Total Task Chaining: Learner is tasked with completing all steps. They are prompted as necessary on every step. After prompt is used, learner completes the next step. Process is continued until the learner completes every step independently.
Backwards Chaining with Leaps Ahead: Very similar to backward chaining. Main difference is that steps in the chain are probed only taught if learner cannot complete them. Even if every step is not taught, the learner must complete every step each time the chain is performed.