Acids/Bases & Functional Groups
What is the pH range? Where do acids and bases fall in the range? What is the neutral pH?
0-14
0-6.9 = acidic
7 = neutral
7.1-14 basic
What is the molecular formula for carbohydrates? & What do sugar names end in?
(CH2O)n
-ose
Lipids do not have repeating __________.
Monomers
What is the name for the type of protein that speeds up chemical reactions?
Enzyme
What is the type of bond that links 2 nucleotides together within a strand of either DNA or RNA?
Phosphodiester Bond
What is the purpose of a buffer?
Protect against changes in pH (buffers maintain homeostasis)
Sugars are linked when a ____________ reaction occurs between 2 hydroxyl groups. What kind of bond is formed?
Condensation reaction
Covalent bond called a glycosidic linkage
What is a fatty acid?
A hydrocarbon chain bonded to a carboxyl (-COOH) functional group (can be saturated or unsaturated)
How many amino acids are there & where does an amino acid differ from other amino acids?
20 amino acids
the R-group (side chain)
What are the 3 parts of a nucleotide? & What do genes hold the code to?
1. Pentose sugar (5 carbon sugar)
2. Nitrogenous Base
3. Phosphate
Genes hold the codes to make proteins
Acids: substances that give up protons during chemical reactions and raise the H+ ion concentration (adding an acid to a solution increases the proton concentration of the solution)
Bases: substances that acquire protons during chemical reactions and lower H+ ion concentration (adding a base to a solution decreases the proton concentration)
Maltose = ____________ + ____________
Sucrose = ____________ + ____________
Lactose = ____________ + ____________
Sucrose = 1 glucose + 1 fructose
Lactose = 1 glucose + 1 galactose
What are the 3 most important types of lipids found in cells?
1. Steroids
2. Fats
3. Phospholipids
What are the 3 main variable R groups?
1. Polar (Hydrophilic)
2. Non-Polar (Hydrophobic)
3. Ionic (Acid or Base)
What are 3 differences between DNA and RNA?
Thymine (DNA) versus Uracil (RNA)
DNA = double helix versus RNA = single strand
OH on the 2'C of the pentose sugar (RNA) versus H on the 2'C of the pentose sugar
The 3 types of isomers discussed in class and what each mean.
1. Structural Isomers - differ in covalent arrangements of their atoms and location of double bonds
2. Geometric Isomers - have the same covalent partnerships, but differ in their spatial arrangement (cis or trans orientation)
3. Enantiomers (chiral molecules) - (molecules that are mirror images and cannot be superimposed on each other) (L = levo = left-handed & D = dextro = right-handed)
What are the 4 primary ways that monosaccharide monomers structurally vary?
- Location of the carbonyl group (at the end = aldose, in the middle = ketose)
- Number of carbon atoms present (three = triose, five = pentose, six = hexose, etc.)
- Spatial arrangement of their atoms (i.e. structural isomers) (different arrangements of the hydroxyl groups)
- Linear and alternative ring forms (sugars typically form ring structures in aqueous)
Saturated fatty acids - double bonds or no double bond? solid or liquid? what organisms are they commonly found in?
Unsaturated fatty acids - double bonds or no double bonds? naturally cis or trans in plants?
Saturated fatty acids - no double bonds between carbon in the chain, solid, animals
Unsaturated fatty acids - chain has carbons with double bonds & naturally cis in plants
Draw 2 amino acids linked together and indicate the type of bond that links them together
(See board for drawing) - peptide bond
What are the nitrogenous bases? Be sure to indicate which category they fall under and what their structure looks like.
Adenine & Guanine --> Purines (2 fused rings - 6 member fused to 5 member ring)
Thymine (DNA), Cytosine, & Uracil (RNA) --> Pyrimidines (One 6 membered ring)
What are the 6 functional groups we talked about and what do each mean?
1. Hydroxyl (-OH) (OH bonded to a carbon skeleton) (classified as alcohols)
2. Carboxyl (-COOH) (a carbon atom that is double bonded to an oxygen atom and also bonded to a hydroxyl group at the same time)
3. Carbonyl (C=O) (a carbon atom joined to an oxygen by a double bond) (ketones & aldehydes)
4. Sulfhydryl (-SH) (a sulfur atom bonded to a hydrogen and carbon skeleton) (also called thiols)
5. Amino (-NH2) (a nitrogen atom bonded to 2 hydrogen atoms and the carbon skeleton) (also classified as amines)
6. Phosphate (-PO42-) (a phosphorous atom that is bonded to four oxygen atoms and one of the oxygen atoms is also bonded to the carbon skeleton)
1. Plants store sugar as ______________.
2. Animals store sugar as _____________.
3. ________ is a structural polymer. Forms a protective layer around plant cells called a ________.
4. ________ is an animal structure polysaccharide.
1. starch
2. glycogen
3. cellulose, cell wall
4. chitin
What is a phospholipid? What is it called when a molecule has both hydrophilic and hydrophobic properties?
2. Amphipathic Molecules
What are the levels of protein folding? How many levels are there? Be sure to describe each level and explain the bond types at each level.
1. Primary Level - the unique A.A. sequence of a polypeptide (peptide bonds)
2. Secondary Level - only the A.A. backbone atoms (No R groups involved) 2 types of structures (alpha-helix and Beta-pleated sheets) (Hydrogen bonds)
3. Tertiary Level - 3-D shape (determined by the R groups) (hydrogen bonds, ionic bonds, covalent bonds, Van der Waals, hydrophobic interaction)
4. Quaternary Level - 2 or more folded polypeptides that associate to form a functional protein (hydrogen bonds, ionic bonds, covalent bonds, Van der Waals, hydrophobic interaction)
If you have 45% adenine, how much guanine is present?
5% --> 45% Adenine + 45% Thymine = 90%, then that leaves 10% left for Cytosine and Guanine (who according to Chargaff's rule, must have equal amounts), therefore we must divide 10/2 = 5% Cytosine and 5% Guanine