Cell Theory
Compare and contrast prokaryotic cells vs eukaryotic cells
Prokaryotes: unicellular, small, circular DNA. Ex: Bacteria, archaea
Eukaryotes: Nucleus, multicullarular/unicellular, large, linear DNA. Ex: Animals, plants, fungi, protists
Both: Membrane bound, cytoplasma, RNA, DNA
Describe catabolic and anabolic chemical reactions
Catabolic: Break bonds -> energy is released (exogonic)
Anabolic: Form bonds -> energy is absorbed (endogonic)
What phase occurs before mitosis
Interphase
DNA base paring rules
•Adenine and Thymine
•Cytosine and Guanine
What's the definition of evolution
change in the inherited characteristics of a group of organisms over generations
What's the job of the nucleus, Golgi apparatus, and Endoplasmic reticulum
Nucleus: DNA –> transcription -> mRNA
Golgi Apparatus: Transports folded proteins
Endoplasmic reticulum: Creates channels for protein transport
Two types of cellular replication
Endothermic: absorbs energy (in form of heat/light)
•Ex: photosynthesis
Exothermic: releases energy (in form of heat/light)
•Ex: cellular respiration
Failure to pass checkpoint results in ___
Apopotosis
What type of of inheritance pattern is displayed when a red rose crossed with a white rose results in a pink rose.
Incomplete dominance: Neither the dominant nor recessive phenotype is expressed, but instead a heterozygous phenotype in-between
Who's responsible for today’s understanding of evolution.
Where did he develop most of his understanding?
Charles Darwin
Galapagos islands
What are examples able to permeate through the cell membrane
Permeate: Oxygen, carbon dioxide, small ions, hydrophobic substances, and water
Not permeable: Large molecules like glucose and amino acids
Photosynthesis: 6CO2+6H2O→C6H12O6+6O2
Cellular Respiration: C6H12O6+6O2 → 6CO2+6H2O
Allow multicellular organisms to grow
Cells reproduce and create identical copies of themselves
Compare and contrast meiosis vs mitosis
•Mitosis: somatic cells. Asexual reproduction of unicellular eukaryotic ells
•Meiosis: gamete cells. Sexual reproduction
On a cladogram, ___ represents a split where a single lineage evolved into a distinct new one (shows speciation)
Nodes/branch points
Purpose of the 3 components of phospholipid bilayer of cells
Proteins: embedded for transport
Lipids: Hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tails -> membrane selective permeability
Carbohydrates: Embedded for structure
Describe Cellular Respiration
Glycolysis: first stage of cellular respiration
•Purpose: breakdown glucose (6-C) to 2 molecules of pyruvate (3-C)
•Anaerobic
Next step:
•If oxygen is present -> aerobic respiration
•Citric Acid Cycle (aka Krebs Cycle)
-- Purpose: NADH and FADH2 move to Electron Transport Chain
•Electron Transport Chain (oxidative phosphorylation and chemiosmosis)
-- Process: ATP Synthase + electrons and hydrogens from Krebs Cycle Products -> 34 ATP and H2O
•If oxygen is NOT present -> anaerobic respiration
-- Fermentation
---- Lactic acid fermentation: Occurs in bacteria and animal cells (i.e. muscles)
---- Alcohol fermentation: Occurs in yeast
Checkpoints:
- G1: G1 to S transition. Purpose: Checks cell size, nutrients, growth factors, DNA damage
- G2: G2 to mitosis transition. Purpose: Checks DNA damage, DNA replication
- Spindle checkpoint: during mitosis. Purpose: Chromosome attachment to spindle at metaphase plate between metaphase and anaphase
Point mutation vs frameshift mutations
Example of each
•Point: single nucleotide
•Frameshift: addition/deletion shifts nucleotides
AAGTCGA
•ACGTCGA = point mutation example
•AGTCGA = frame shift mutation
What macroevolutionary pattern the following an example of: Dogs descended from the wolf but domestic dogs today look very different with small stature and shorter muzzles
Divergent Evolution
Passive
1. Diffusion: process of moving from a higher to lower concentration
2. Facilitated diffusion: Requires a protein channel
3. Osmosis: flow of water towards hyPERtonic solution
4. Active Transport: energy driven
5. Endocytosis: vesicle fuse with the cell membrane for molecule to enter cell
6. Exocytosis: vesicle fuse with the cell membrane for molecule to leave cell
Explain to me in your own words photosynthesis (don’t forget the Calvin Cycle)
•Electron Transport Chain (ETC) (light dependent)
•H2O -> Hydrogen and Oxygen (waste produce)
•Energy from sun -> ETC to bind with NADP+ and ADP -> ATP + NADPH + H+
•Leaves grana and enters stroma for Calvin cycle
•Calvin Cycle (light-independent)
•CO2 diffuses into stroma to attaches to RuBP (5-C) -> unstable 6-C molecules
Key Points
•Energy from ATP and NADPH break 6-C molecule into 2 PGA (3-C)
•Convert 2 PGA (3-C) to 2 G3P (3-C)
•One G3P leaves cycle to become glucose
•One G3P continues in Calvin Cycle to convert back to 5-C by using phosphate from ATP
What are the 5 stages of mitosis
Prophase: formation of mitotic spindle and chromosomes condensing
Metaphase: chromosomes align in the center of the dividing cell
Anaphase: separation of duplicated genetic material from parent cell into two daughter cells
Telophase: nucleus forms around daughter chromosomes
Cytokinesis: Final full separation into daughter cells
Explain the phases of meiosis
•Interphase: grows, replicates chromosomes, and checks if ready to divide
•Prophase I: chromosomes condense and pair up.. Crossing over can occur. Crossing over = exchange of genetic material
•Metaphase I: homologous chromosome pairs line up for separation
•Anaphase I: homologous are pulled apart, but not sister chromatids
•Telophase I: chromosomes arrive at opposite poles of the cells
•Cytokinesis occurs simultaneously resulting in 2 haploid daughter cells
•Prophase II: condense chromosomes from haploid daughter cells
•Metaphase II: chromosomes line up on metaphase plate
•Anaphase II: sister chromatids separate
•Telophase II: nuclear membrane around chromosome pairs
•Cytokinesis splits chromosome sets again resulting in total of 4 haploid cells
What are two examples of evolutionary patterns, 2 examples of rate of evolution, and 3 of macroevolutionary patterns
Evolutionary patterns
•Speciation: evolutionary process by which populations evolve to become distinct species
•Extinction: the elimination of a species
Rate of evolution:
•Gradualism: slow constant changes over a long period of time
•Punctuated equilibrium: burst of change followed by periods of stability
Macroevolutionary patterns
•Divergent evolution: when closely related species evolve becoming more different
•Convergent evolution: unrelated species evolve to become more similar
•Coevolution: species evolve together