Chapters 1-4
What are the 6 characteristics of life?
1. Life is organized
2. Life requires materials and energy
3. Living organisms maintain homeostasis
4. Living organisms respond
5. Living organisms reproduce and develop
6. Living organisms have adaptations
What is the difference between isotonic, hypotonic, and hypertonic solutions? What happens to a cell in each of these solutions?
iso- same concentration/ stay the same
hyper- more concentrated/ crenation or shrink
hypo- less concentrated/ swell or lysis
What is the difference between an inversion, deletion, duplication, and translocation?
Deletion- DNA breaks off
Duplication- DNA is present more than once
Inversion- DNA segment is turned around 180 degrees
Translocation- movement of a chromosome segment from one chromosome to another
Explain transcription.
mRNA is produced from RNA polymerase joining nucleotides together. RNA polymerase binds to promotor, which starts transcription when a start codon is read. Transcription stops when it hits a stop codon. Then pre-mRNA is processed to take out the introns and keep the exons.
What is the difference between gustation, olfactory, photoreceptors?
gustation- taste
olfactory- smell
photoreceptors are in the eye for sight.
What is the difference between DNA and RNA?
DNA: deoxyribose; adenine, guanine, thymine, and cytosine; double-stranded with base pairing; has a helix; longer
RNA: ribose; adenine, guanine, uracil, and cytosine; single-stranded normally; no helix; shorter
What is the difference between noncompetitive inhibition and competitive inhibition?
noncompetitive- inhibitor binds to an allosteric site
competitive- inhibitor and substrate compete for the active site
What are the steps and processes going on in the cell cycle?
G1- increases number of organelles and accumulates materials for S phase
S- DNA synthesis- replicate all of the DNA
G2- synthesizes proteins for cell division; final preparations
M:
Prophase- chromatin condensed, centromeres there, centrioles moving to poles, nucleolus disappears and nuclear envelope fragments. The spindles are formed.
Metaphase- Centromeres of chromosomes aligned on metaphase plate; attached to spindle fibers
Anaphase- sister chromatids pulled apart to poles to become daughter chromosomes.
Telophase- daughter cells forming and nuclear envelope is reappearing.
Explain translation.
tRNA with the anticodon and amino acids are made during transcription as well. The mRNA is transferred into a protein with the help of tRNA. Goes into ribosomal subunit and builds a polypeptide in the P site until a stop codon is reached. Then the protein will fold.
What are the functions of the skeletal system?
- support of the body
- protection of vital organs
- sites for muscle attachment
- storage for ions
- production of blood cells
What are the 5 properties of water?
1. Water has a high heat capacity
2. Water has a high heat of evaporation
3. Water is a solvent
4. Water molecules are cohesive and adhesive
5. Frozen water (ice) is less dense than liquid water
What are some factors affecting enzymatic speed?
substrate concentration, optimal pH, temperature, enzyme cofactors and coenzymes
Explain the process of Meiosis. Use haploid and diploid in your answer. How is this different than Mitosis?
Meiosis I-
same as mitosis only homologous chromosomes separate, end with 2 haploid cells instead of diploid.
Meiosis II-
same as mitosis only haploid instead of diploid and end with 4 cells instead of 2.
Explain GMOs and how they have been used. Explain Dolly the Sheep.
plants- higher yield, more resistance, etc.
animals- hormones, etc.
What hormones work antagonistically to maintain homeostasis in the blood glucose levels? blood calcium levels?
blood glucose- insulin (lowers) and glucagon (raises)
blood calcium- parathyroid hormone (raises) and calcitonin (lowers)
What is the most acidic? most basic? What is the pH of blood?
Hydrochloric acid (HCl)- 0
Sodium hydroxide (NaOH)- 14
blood- 7.4
What is the equation for photosynthesis? What reactions are occurring and where? How does it all work?
How do the electrons flow in the light reactions?
6 CO2 + 12 H2O ----> 6 CH3O + 6 H2O + 6 O2
Light reactions (thylakoid membrane) and Calvin cycle (storm)
H2O in with solar energy, water is split so O2 is released, and then ATP and NADPH are produced.
CO2 is absorbed and reduced to a carbohydrate (CH2O) by using ATP and NADPH from the light reactions. ADP+P and NADP+ is returned back to the light reaction to produce ATP and NADPH again.
Water is split and then goes in Photosystem II to boost energy of the electron, move down the electron transport chain and make ATP, and then boost the electron again in Photosystem I to allow proton and election to join to make H and change NADP+ to NADPH.
What is the difference between a monohybrid and dihybrid cross? What are the phenotypic ratios for each?
Where do we see independent assortment occurring?
What are some X-linked diseases? What are autosomal recessive diseases? autosomal dominant?
mono- crossing 1 trait (3:1)
di- crossing 2 traits (9:3:3:1)
In Meiosis I
X-linked- color blindness, muscular dystrophy, hemophilia, adrenoleukodystrophy
Autosomal recessive- cystic fibrosis, methemoglobinemia, and phenylketonuria
Autosomal dominant- osteogenesis imperfecta, huntington disease, hereditary spherocytosis
*KNOW HOW TO DO A PEDIGREE*
What are the 3 intergenic sequences?
1. Repetitive DNA elements- 44%
2. Transposons- less than 2%
3. Unique noncoding DNA- 54%
How does muscle contraction work?
Ca2+ binds to troponin which pulls the tropomyosin off of the myosin binding sites. This allows myosin to bind to the actin filament. ATP is broken down when the myosin is not attached (ATPase). The ADP and P remain on the myosin heads until attachment, then they release changing the position of the myosin head creating the movement. When ATP molecules rebind to the myosin heads, the cross-bridge with the actin is broken and the heads detach.
What are the biomolecules? Monomers and Polymers of each...
Carbohydrates- monosaccharide/ polysaccharide
Lipids- glycerol and fatty acids/ fat
Proteins- amino acid/ polypeptide
Nucleic acids- nucleotide/ DNA and RNA
What are the phases of cellular respiration? How do they work?
Glycolysis- one glucose broken down into 2 pyruvate and make 2 NADH and 2 ATP. This all happens in the cytoplasm.
Prep Step- two pyruvate turned into 2 Acetyl CoA with 2 CO2 and 2 NADH. Occurring in the Mitochondrial matrix.
Citric Acid/ Krebs- two Acetyl CoA turned into 6 NADH and 2 FADH2, 2 ATP, and 4 CO2. Also in the matrix.
ETC- 10 NADH and 2 FADH2 make 32-34 ATP and 6 water in the inner mitochondrial membranes
Explain replication of DNA. When is this occurring?
1. DNA helicase
2. DNA polymerase
or
1. DNA helicase
2. RNA primer
3. DNA polymerase
4. Okazaki Fragments
5. DNA ligase
Occurring during S phase.
Briefly explain the levels of eukaryotic regulation.
Chromatin structure- heterochromatin vs. euchromatin. epigenetic inheritance (methylation)
Transcriptional control- transcription factors with activators and repressors
Post-Transcriptional control- how introns and exons are spliced. sRNA molecules.
Translational control- 5' cap and poly-A tail
Post-Translational control- proteases and proteasome
Explain the sodium-potassium pump and how/why it works.
For nerve impulses.
-70 is the resting potential, Na+ outside and K+ inside
-55 is when a stimulus causes to get to the threshold, which is the start of the action potential.
+35 is when depolarization is occurring and Na+ gates open for Na+ to move inside.
+70 is when the action potential ends. Repolarization is occurring by opening the K+ gates and allowing the axon to return to it's resting potential