UNIT 1
What is blood made up of?
Blood is made up of red blood cells, white blood cells, plasma, and platelets.
In what scenario would a pedigree chart be used?
A pedigree chart could be used to determine if a trait is dominant or recessive. The chart could also be used to determine inheritance of traits through generations.
List the first lines of the body's defense (innate immune system).
Skin, tears, saliva, mucus, stomach acid, inflammation, etc.
Which side of the heart is oxygenated? What side of the heart is deoxygenated?
The left side of the heart is oxygenated, and the right side is deoxygenated.
What is HIPAA? List at least 3 of HIPAA's main objectives.
HIPAA (Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act) is a law that sets standards for how patient data/records are handled. Some of HIPAA's objectives include protecting patient privacy, preventing the use of confidential patient information without consent, providing continuous health insurance for patients switching jobs, etc.
What are minutiae? List 5 types of minutiae.
Minutiae are ridges on our fingertips which are used to compare/match fingerprints to suspects. Some minutiae include: ridge ending, fork, short ridge, dot, bridge, hook, eye, double fork, delta, and triple fork.
Jeff and Shauna Sadecki are planning on having a child. Jeff is heterozygous for the autosomal dominant disease, familial hypercholesterolemia (FH). Shauna is not afflicted by FH. What is the probability that their child will be afflicted with FH?
There is a 50% probability that their child will be afflicted by FH.
Define each agent of disease and list the medications they are treated with (if they have one).
Bacteria - Antibiotics
Prions - None
Helminths - Deworming medication
Protists - Antiprotozoal
Fungus - Antifungals
What is the purpose of the atrium and the ventricle? Are they related? If so, what is their relationship?
The atrium collects the blood that is entering that specific side of the heart before moving it through a valve into the ventricle. The ventricle is responsible for pumping the blood through the body, into it's designated location.
What are point and Frameshift mutations? What types of mutations trigger point and shift mutations?
Point Mutations: When a base is exchanged for another. For example, A is swapped with G. Substitutions can cause point mutations.
Frameshift Mutations: When a base is inserted or deleted, shifting the entire base sequence back one or up one. Caused by deletions or insertions.
Frameshift mutations are much more dangerous as they can change and form completely different proteins.
What is agglutination? What kind of testing is used to prevent future cases of agglutinations in hospitals?
Agglutination is the clumping of red blood cells in reaction to antigens and antibodies. It can occur if a patient is given the wrong blood type, as different blood types contain different antibodies and antigens. To prevent this, confirmatory blood tests are run on patients to ensure that they are not given the wrong blood type in case of emergency.
What is the difference between type 1 diabetes and type 2 diabetes? Identify which type of feedback loop diabetes disrupts and provide an example of this feedback loop.
Type 1 diabetes is when the body produces insufficient amounts of insulin, causing glucose to build up in the bloodstream. (You are born with type 1 diabetes.)
Type 2 diabetes is when receptors fail to send signals when binding with insulin, preventing glucose from entering cells. (You can develop type 2 diabetes.)
Diabetes disrupts the negative feedback loop asthe body will not be able to allow glucose into cells, preventing homeostasis and increasing glucose levels.
An example of negative feedback includes temperature regulation, secretion of insulin to lower glucose levels, etc.
Define isotonic, hypotonic, and hypertonic solutions. How can they affect blood cells? In what direction would osmosis occur?
Isotonic Solution: Concentration of solutes in the solution is equal in and out of the cell. Red blood cells will remain the same. Water moves into and out of the cells equally.
Hypotonic Solution: The concentrations of solutes inside the cell are greater than the solutes outside the cell. Red blood cells will swell. Water moves into the cells.
Hypertonic Solution: The concentration of solutes outside the cell is greater than the solutes inside the cell. Red blood cells will shrivel. Water moves out of the cells.
What is the purpose of a heart valve? What two valves allow deoxygenated/oxygenated blood to enter the right and left ventricles?
Valves prevent blood from backflowing and mixing with other parts of the heart, causing deadly complications. The tricuspid valve allows deoxygenated blood to enter the right ventricle. The mitral/bicuspid valve allows oxygenated blood to enter the left ventricle.
Misty checks her blood glucose level (BGL) with a glucometer at night. Her BGL is at 320. The normal BGL level is 80-120. What should Misty do?
1: Take insulin medication
2: Go to the emergency room
3: Check again in 15 minutes
List the 4 different types of tissue and their location. Describe each of their functions.
TISSUE 1: Epithelial Tissue, which is responsible for protection, absorption, secretion, sensory, etc. It is located on the outer layers of organs and blood vessels.
TISSUE 2: Connective tissue, which supports and connects tissues of the body.
TISSUE 3: Nervous tissue, which is found in the spinal cord and the brain. This tissue recieves, interprets, and responds to signals.
TISSUE 4: Muscle tissue, which is found on bones, allows the body to move.
List the ABCDEs for analyzing moles.
A - Asymmetry
B - Border
C - Color
D - Diameter
E - Evolving
Define the steps for aseptic technique during the isolation of bacteria.
1: Make sure your work area is sterile.
2: Collect the required equipment.
3: Label your petri dishes properly.
4: Sterilize the inoculating loop.
5: Insert the loop into the sample and stir.
6: Create an isolation streak.
7: Sterilize the loop under a flame until it turns red before collecting more bacteria.
(Repeat steps 5,6, and 7 until the dish has been fully streaked)
8: Clean your workspace.
9: Properly disgard waste.
10: Wash your hands.
Define how blood travels from the right atrium to the left atrium.
Starting in the right atrium, blood travels through the tricuspid valve and into the right ventricle. It then passes through the pulmonary valve into the pulmonary arteries, reaching the lungs. The lungs transport the now oxygenated blood to the left atrium.
List the steps of primary assessment.
1: Form a general impression of the patient
2: Check MOI (mechanism of injury)
3: Check patient responsiveness
4: Consider stabilizing the patient's spine
5: Check patient's ABCs
List all of the post-mortem stages with a brief description IN ORDER. Time ranges included.
1: Algor Mortis begins immediately after death and is the cooling or heating of the body after death.
2: Livor mortis begins 0-24 hours after death, which is the pooling of blood in the body.
3: Rigor mortis begins 2-4 hours after death, which causes muscles to contract, keeping the body in a fixed position.
4: The clouding of the corneas begins 3-4 hours after death.
5: Insect activity begins 1-145 hours after death. This stage accelerates the decomposition process.
6: Decomposition begins 36-48 hours after death.
List each stage of meiosis in order and provide a description. List the 2 stages where a nondisjunction can happen.
1: Interphase: DNA replicates to have 2 copies of each chromosome.
2: PROHASE I: Chromosomes pair up with their matching chromosomes called homologous chromosomes. Crossing over begins in this stage.
3: Metaphase I: Homologous chromosomes line up at the center of the cell. Fibers attach, pulling the homologous chromosomes to opposite poles of the cell.
4: ANAPHASE I: Each chromosome separates and the homologous chromosomes are pulled to opposite cell poles. A NON-DISJUNCTION CAN HAPPEN HERE.
5: Telophase + Cytokinesis: The cell splits in 2, making two daughter cells which are genetically different.
6: Prophase II: Chromosomes condense again and the nuclear envelope breaks down.
7: Metaphase II: Chromosomes line up at the center of both cells. Fibers attach to each of the sister chromatids, pulling them to opposite poles of the cells.
8: Anaphase II: Each chromosome separates, and the sister chromatids are pulled to opposite poles of the cells. A NON-DISJUNCTION CAN HAPPEN HERE.
9: Telophase + Cytokinesis: A nucleus forms around each set of chromosomes before cytokinesis divides the cell into 4, each containing half the number of chromosomes as the original cell.
What is the purpose of the Gram staining procedure? List each step of the Gram staining procedure in order. (Include time duration for processes)
The Gram Staining Procedure is used to determine whether bacteria is gram positive OR negative.
STEPS:
1: Ready your slide with the bacterial sample.
2: Run the slide over a bunsen burner/flame 1-2 times. This should take 2-3 seconds. Make sure the side with bacteria is facing away from the flame.
3: Add crystal violet to the sample and let it soak for 30-40 seconds before rinsing off with water.
4: Add Iodine and let soak for 1 minute before rinsing off.
5: Add rubbing alcohol to decolorize the bacteria for 10-30 seconds.
6: Add Safarin to the slide, rinse off after 20-30 seconds.
The procedure has been completed.
List at least 4 heart abnormalities with definitions. List the accompanying symptoms (if applicable) for each abnormality.
Examples:
Atherosclerosis: A buildup of plaque in arteries, blocking blood flow. Can result in a myocardial infarction (heart attack) or stroke without treatment.
Myocardial Infarction: Caused by the blockage of coronary arteries by plaque buildup or blood clots. Symptoms include tightness, pain in the chest or shoulders, abnormal heartbeat, etc. Myocardial Infarctions can be fatal.
Congestive Heart Failure: Causes the ventricle walls to thin and weaken, the heart is unable to pump blood effectively. Symptoms include shortness of breath, fatigue, irregular swelling, abnormal heart beat, etc.
Ventricular Septal Defect: Caused by an irregular hole connecting the right and left ventricles. May cause blood from both ventricles to mix, leading to deadly complications. Symptoms include shortness of breath, heart palpitations, fatigue, etc.
Order of events for protein synthesis.
Word Bank: Gene, Codon, tRNA, mRNA, Ribosome, RNA Polymerase, Protein, Amino Acids, Cytoplasm, Transcription, Translation, Nucleus, DNA
Within a cell, DNA is housed in the cell nucleus.
When a protein needs to be made, a signal is sent to a cell to turn on the gene that codes for the needed protein. This is the start of transcription.
Transcription occurs in the nucleus of a cell. During transcription, DNA is read by an enzyme called DNA Polymerase and produces mRNA.
The mRNA moves out of the nucleus to the cytoplasm where translation occurs. During translation, ribosomes read the mRNA sequence. During the process, tRNA attaches to the ribosome, forming codons. Codons is a sequence of 3 mRNA bases that code for 1 amino acid.
When all amino acids are coded, they fold and form a protein.