Endocrine System
Melatonin
Which hormone prompts the formation of new red blood cells (erythrocytes)?
Where is this hormone produced?
Erythropoietin is produced by the kidneys.
Why do fetal remnants in the heart exist (what purpose did the structures serve prior to birth)?
The (closure of the foramen ovale and the ligamentum arteriosum) purpose was to bypass the fetal lungs since the blood (from the mother) was already oxygenated.
Where does the lymphatic duct collect lymph?
The lymphatic duct collects lymph on the right side of the head (also right neck, thorax, and upper limb).
What is the purpose of intercalated discs in cardiac muscle tissue?
Intercalated discs provide a mechanism for rapid action potential conduction.
What are the effects of glucagon release? What about insulin?
Glucagon raises blood glucose, and Insulin decreases blood glucose.
How are platelets formed? What is their function?
Platelets are crucial in blood clotting, and they form when megakaryocytes (multinucleated bone marrow cells) break down.
Is the heart in contraction in systole or diastole?
Is the sound heard through a stethoscope during a heartbeat caused by the opening or closing of heart valves?
Systole: contraction
Diastole: relaxation
The sound heard through a stethoscope is made by the closing of the heart valves (and the blood sloshing back into them).
Where are T-lymphocytes formed? Where do they mature?
T-lymphocytes are formed in the bone marrow (where all blood cells originate), and they mature in the thymus.
Distinguish between hydrostatic pressure and osmotic pressure. Which is greater on the arterial end? How about the venous end?
HP: arterial, force fluid out, filtration, "push"
OP: venous, draw fluid in, reabsorption, "pull"
How are steroids able to get into cells? How about proteins?
Steroids can diffuse right through the membrane (direct activation), and proteins must use a secondary messenger system.
What is the shape, lifespan, and pigment associated with red blood cells (erythrocytes)?
Shape: concave disc
Lifespan: up to 120 days
Pigment: hemoglobin
What does the P wave of Sinus Rhythm indicate? How about the T wave?
P wave: atrial depolarization
T wave: ventricular repolarization
What class of MHC is associated with helper CD4+ T-cells? What about cytotoxic CD8+ T-cells?
Helper CD4+ T-cells: MHCII
Cytotoxic CD8+ T cells: MHCI
What are signs of inflammation (name at least 3)?
Redness, swelling, heat, pain, and loss of function
Which hormones/neurotransmitters are released by the adrenal medulla? What about the adrenal cortex?
Adrenal medulla - N & NE
Adrenal cortex - aldosterone, cortisol, androgens
How do arteries and veins differ structurally? Which carries blood toward the heart, and which carries blood away from the heart?
Arteries: smaller lumen, thicker tunica media due to higher BP, carry blood away from the heart
Veins: thicker tunica externa, has valves, carries blood toward the heart
What occurs physiologically during the plateau phase of the action potential of a cardiac muscle cell (myocyte)?
K+ exits and Ca2+ enters
What is adaptive immunity?
Adaptive immunity: how the body learns to fight specific germs and remembers them to enhance the immune response
When exposed to a particular antigen, it takes about 10 days to produce memory T-cells. When exposed to that antigen a second time, it takes only 2-3 days.
Which ventricle is thicker (more muscular) and why?
The left ventricle is thicker because it pumps blood to the systemic tissues of the entire body.
What are the 2 hormones produced by the posterior pituitary gland? What are the 6 hormones produced by the anterior pituitary gland?
Posterior Pituitary: OT and ADH
Anterior Pituitary: TSH, ACTH, PRL, GH, FSH, and LH
Blood is 55% plasma, which is 92% water. What are the functions of each of these plasma proteins: albumins, globulins, fibrinogen.
Albumins: osmotic balance
Globulins: immune response (like antibodies)
Fibrinogen: blood clotting
Put these terms in the correct order. What is the pathway of blood through the heart?
Left Ventricle, Lungs, Aortic Valve, Superior and Inferior Vena Cava, Right Atrium, Mitral Valve, Pulmonary Veins, Right Ventricle, Pulmonary Valve, Pulmonary
Superior and Inferior Vena Cava, Right Atrium, Tricuspid Valve, Right Ventricle, Pulmonary Valve, Pulmonary Arteries, Lungs, Pulmonary Veins, Left Atrium, Mitral (Bicuspid) Valve, Left Ventricle, Aortic Valve, Aorta
What are the functions of each of these white blood cells (leukocytes)?
Neutrophils, Basophils, Eosinophils, Monocytes, Lymphocytes
Neutrophils: phagocytize pathogens
Basophils: promote inflammation
Eosinophils: active in cases of parasites
Monocytes: phagocytize viruses & debris
Lymphocytes: immunity (T-cells & B cells)
What are some symptoms of Cushing's Syndrome and what causes this condition?
Symptoms: weight gain, moon face, buffalo hump
Cause: prolonged excessive cortisol levels