Definitions
Define Agenda setting
Agenda setting is the process by which the media shape the public’s perception of what issues are important. It asserts that media do not tell people what to think, but rather what to think about (McCombs & Shaw, 1972).
What are the main logics that underpin the functioning of algorithmic media? Describe them with an example each.
The three main logics that underpin algorithmic media are datafication, selection, and commodification. Datafication is the process of turning human actions into measurable data—platforms like Spotify track every song you listen to in order to personalize your recommendations. Selection refers to how algorithms filter and rank content based on predicted engagement, not just time or quality; for example, TikTok’s “For You” page shows content that aligns with your past behavior to keep you watching. Commodification means that platforms turn user data and attention into profit—Facebook, for instance, sells targeted ads based on your activity. Together, these logics shape what we see online and how digital platforms operate.
What does "distinction" meant for Pierre Bourdieu? Can you provide an example?
For Pierre Bourdieu, "distinction" refers to how people use taste—in art, music, food, etc.—to signal their social class and cultural capital. Taste isn't just personal preference; it's shaped by class background and used to draw boundaries between groups. People from higher social classes often see their tastes (like classical music or fine art) as more “legitimate” or “refined,” while looking down on popular or mass culture.
Someone who prefers opera and visits art galleries may be seen as more “cultured,” while someone who enjoys reality TV or fast food might be seen as having “low” taste. This isn’t just about personal choice—it’s a form of social distinction that reinforces class divisions. So, for Bourdieu, taste is a tool of social power that helps people show where they belong—and where others don’t.
Recommendation systems somehow automate the expression of cultural taste. What is the significance of this transformation for our social lives?
Recommendation systems automate cultural taste by predicting and suggesting what we might enjoy—like music, shows, or news—based on our past behavior. This shifts how we discover content, often reinforcing our existing preferences rather than exposing us to new ideas or diverse voices. According to Pierre Bourdieu, taste is not just personal—it reflects our social background and class. Algorithms now shape this process, influencing what we consider “good” or “popular” without us realizing it. For example, Spotify and Netflix recommend content that aligns with what we've already liked, making it harder to step outside our cultural bubbles. This has social consequences: it can limit exposure to different perspectives, reduce cultural diversity, and deepen divides between social groups. In short, recommendation systems don’t just suggest—they subtly shape what we value, enjoy, and share.
Define Remediation
Remediation is the process by which new media refashion and repurpose old media, creating continuity and hybridity between technological forms (Bolter & Grusin, 1999).
How do digital media contribute to environmental degradation? Choose one specific industry and describe its impact on the environment.
Digital media contribute to environmental degradation through energy use, resource extraction, and e-waste. One major industry responsible for this is the smartphone industry. Smartphones require rare earth materials like lithium and cobalt, which are often mined in environmentally harmful and exploitative conditions. The production and global shipping of phones also release large amounts of carbon emissions. Additionally, smartphones have short lifespans and are frequently discarded, contributing to the growing problem of e-waste. Toxic components from old devices often end up in landfills, leaking into soil and water. Although smartphones feel “immaterial,” their environmental impact is significant and ongoing.
Describe the cycle of production, use and disassembly of a digital product ci.e. phone or generative AI, and discuss it in terms of its environmental impact.
The cycle of a digital product like a smartphone includes its production, use, and disassembly, each with serious environmental consequences. In the production phase, smartphones require rare earth materials such as lithium and cobalt, which are often mined in environmentally destructive and exploitative conditions. The manufacturing process also consumes large amounts of energy and produces significant carbon emissions.
During the use phase, smartphones require constant charging and rely on data centers to support apps, cloud storage, and streaming—these centers consume massive electricity and contribute to greenhouse gas emissions.In the disassembly phase, most phones are discarded within 2–3 years, leading to a growing e-waste crisis. Many devices are not properly recycled, and toxic materials can leak into soil and water systems.
This full cycle highlights that digital products, while appearing “clean” or immaterial, have a large ecological footprint. As media theorists like Sean Cubitt and Jussi Parikka argue, digital culture is deeply tied to material and environmental costs that are often hidden from view.
Describe a case of stereotypical media representation of a community. What does that example say about the relation between media and society? Rely on authors discussed in class and in the readings to frame your case through relevant social theory.
A clear case of stereotypical media representation is the portrayal of Black women as aggressive or loud in reality television shows like Love & Hip Hop. These shows often frame Black female cast members through the “angry Black woman” stereotype, emphasizing conflict, shouting, and emotional instability. According to Stuart Hall, media doesn’t simply reflect reality—it constructs meaning through repeated images and language, reducing complex identities to fixed traits. bell hooks critiques how Black women are either erased or misrepresented in media, and calls for an oppositional gaze that resists these portrayals. From a Gramscian perspective, stereotypes like this help maintain cultural hegemony, making dominant ideas about race and gender feel “normal” or “natural.” This example shows how media reflects and reinforces power structures in society, shaping how audiences view marginalized groups while limiting the kinds of stories and people that are seen as valuable or relatable.
Define Male Gaze
The male gaze is a term from feminist film theory describing how visual media depict women from a heterosexual male perspective, positioning them as passive objects of desire (Mulvey, 1975).
Jurgen Habermas located the emergence of a modern public sphere in a specific moment in time. Where, when, and based on what transformations?
Jürgen Habermas located the emergence of the modern public sphere in 18th-century Western Europe, especially in England, France, and Germany. It developed through key social and cultural transformations, including the rise of the bourgeois class, the growth of print culture like newspapers and journals, and the formation of public discussion spaces such as coffeehouses and salons. These changes allowed private citizens to come together and engage in rational, critical debate about politics and society, separate from the state or the church. Habermas saw this as a foundational moment for democratic life and modern public discourse.
Laura Mulvey and bell hooks theorized the ‘gaze’ in different ways. What did they mean with this term?
Laura Mulvey and bell hooks both used the concept of the "gaze" to explain how people are represented and viewed in media, but from different perspectives. Laura Mulvey introduced the idea of the male gaze, arguing that mainstream cinema positions women as passive objects of male desire, with the camera and audience aligned with a heterosexual male viewpoint. In contrast, bell hooks developed the idea of the oppositional gaze, focusing on how Black women are often excluded or misrepresented in media. She argued that Black female viewers learn to watch media critically, resisting dominant portrayals and asserting their right to look. While Mulvey focuses on gender and objectification, hooks adds race and power to the conversation, highlighting how marginalized audiences can challenge what they see.
Is media evolution linear? Describe this process through one or more examples related to contemporary digital media and services.
Media evolution is not linear, it is recursive - new media technologies do not simply replace old ones but often remix, adapt, or coexist with them. Bolter and Grusin call this process remediation, where new media borrow from and refashion earlier forms. For example, Instagram mimics the look of vintage Polaroid photography through square image formats and filters, blending digital convenience with analog aesthetics. Similarly, podcasts bring back the structure of traditional radio shows but make them available on-demand through streaming platforms. These examples show that media change is layered and cyclical, not a straight line of progress. New forms often depend on older formats to feel familiar and usable, showing how media evolution is shaped by cultural habits, aesthetics, and user expectations.
Define Datafication
Datafication is the transformation of human actions, interactions, and behaviors into quantified digital data that can be tracked, analyzed, and monetized.
Define Extractivism
Extractivism is the systematic exploitation of natural, human, and digital resources—usually for economic gain and often without consent or sustainability.
Media audiences are not passive receivers of information. In which ways can they actively engage with media content?
Media audiences actively engage with content in several ways. According to Stuart Hall’s encoding/decoding model, audiences can interpret media in different ways—they might accept the intended meaning (dominant reading), partially agree (negotiated), or reject it (oppositional). People also participate through remix culture and fan production, creating memes, edits, or fan fiction that reinterpret original content. Henry Jenkins calls this participatory culture, where users are not just consumers but also creators. Platforms like TikTok and YouTube make it easy for audiences to comment, remix, and redistribute content, showing that meaning is constantly being reshaped through user interaction.
Extractivism is a concept that encompasses several dimensions. Provide an example for each.
Extractivism refers to the process of taking resources—natural, digital, or human—often without sustainability or fair compensation. In media and technology, it shows up in three main dimensions:
Natural Extractivism
→ Example: Mining cobalt and lithium for smartphone batteries.
These rare earth minerals are often extracted under harsh labor conditions and cause serious environmental damage, especially in countries like the Democratic Republic of Congo.
Digital Extractivism
→ Example: Facebook collecting and monetizing user data.
The platform harvests data from our likes, shares, and interactions to sell targeted advertising—turning our attention and behavior into profit, without compensating users.
Human Extractivism
→ Example: Content creators on TikTok or YouTube working long hours to stay visible on the platform.
Their unpaid emotional and creative labor generates value for platforms, which profit from ad revenue while creators often earn very little.
What is the role of authenticity in today’s media? Which theories help understand it? Discuss through your favourite examples.
Authenticity plays a major role in today’s media, especially in influencer culture and reality television, where audiences value content that feels “real” or relatable. However, what appears authentic is often carefully staged or edited. Rose and Wood describe this as hyperauthenticity—when media is designed to look real, even though it’s planned and produced. Umberto Eco also explains that people often prefer the “authentic fake,” where the imitation feels more real than reality itself. For example, influencers on TikTok or YouTube often present themselves as casual and unfiltered, but their content is usually curated to appear that way. Shows like Love Island or Selling Sunset present personal drama as spontaneous, even though it’s heavily edited and structured. These examples show that authenticity is less about truth and more about the performance of realness, and audiences engage with it knowing it’s a mix of real and produced.
Define Algorithmic Bias
Algorithmic bias refers to systematic errors in algorithmic decision-making that disadvantage specific groups, often reinforcing racial, gender, or class inequalities.
Define Encoding / Decoding
Encoding/decoding is Stuart Hall’s communication model that argues media texts are polysemic—open to multiple interpretations depending on the audience’s social context.
What is algorithmic bias and how can it be reduced or eliminated?
Algorithmic bias happens when automated systems make unfair or discriminatory decisions because of biased data or flawed design. This often reflects existing social inequalities, such as racism or sexism. For example, facial recognition software has been shown to misidentify darker-skinned individuals at higher rates, especially Black women. According to Safiya Noble, algorithms can reinforce harmful stereotypes, and Joy Buolamwini describes this as the “coded gaze.” To reduce algorithmic bias, we need more diverse training data, transparent system design, regular audits, and inclusive development teams. These steps help ensure algorithms treat all users more fairly and accurately.
IS TECHNOLOGY NEUTRAL? DISCUSS THROUGH ONE CONCRETE EXAMPLE.
Technology is not neutral—it is shaped by human values, assumptions, and social contexts. Although technologies may seem objective or purely functional, they are designed and used within systems of power and culture.
Facial recognition software: While facial recognition might seem like a neutral tool for identifying faces, studies (such as those by Joy Buolamwini) have shown that it performs far less accurately on people with darker skin tones, especially Black women. This is because the software is often trained on biased datasets that include mostly white, male faces. As a result, the technology reinforces existing racial inequalities and can lead to harmful consequences, such as false arrests or exclusion from services.
This example shows that technology reflects the biases of its creators and the systems in which it’s developed and used. As theorists like Ruha Benjamin argue, technologies can amplify discrimination if we treat them as neutral rather than socially constructed.
Present an example of remix culture and discuss it in the context of today’s media industries.
An example of remix culture is the use of TikTok audio trends, where users take a popular sound or clip and create their own spin on it—through dance, parody, or storytelling. This is a core feature of remix culture, where people rework existing media to make something new. According to Lawrence Lessig, remix is part of a “read-write culture” where users are not just consumers but also creators. Henry Jenkins adds that participatory media encourages fans to actively reshape cultural content. While remix allows for creativity and personal expression, it also challenges traditional media industries, especially around issues of copyright and control. Platforms like TikTok thrive on user remixes of songs, movie clips, or memes—but often without paying original creators or getting licenses. This tension shows how remix culture pushes industries to rethink authorship, ownership, and who gets to participate in making media