Levels of Processing
This theory, proposed by Craik and Lockhart in 1972, suggests that deep, meaningful processing of information results in better recall than shallow, sensory-based processing.
What is the levels-of-processing approach?
This principle states that recall is better when the retrieval context matches the encoding context.
What is the encoding-specificity principle?
This type of memory task requires a person to intentionally retrieve information and is commonly assessed through recall and recognition tests.
What is an explicit memory task?
This term describes the process by which people shape and color their past experiences to form a coherent personal narrative.
What is reconstructive memory?
This effect occurs when people recall misleading post-event information instead of the actual event they witnessed.
What is the post-event misinformation effect?
The two key factors that contribute to better recall in deep processing are distinctiveness and this process, which involves linking concepts to one another in a meaningful way.
What is elaboration?
A study by Marian and Fausey (2006) found that participants were more accurate when answering questions in this condition.
What is the same language as the original story?
According to research by Kristin Mitte, individuals with this category of psychological disorders are more likely to recall anxiety-arousing words but less likely to remember neutral or pleasant words.
What are anxiety disorders?
This memory error occurs when someone mistakenly attributes a piece of information to the wrong origin, as seen in cases of unintentional plagiarism
What is a source-monitoring error?
Gary Graham was sentenced to death based on the testimony of one eyewitness who saw his face for about this many seconds from 30 feet away.
What is 3 seconds?
In a study by Craik and Tulving (1975), participants were about three times more likely to remember a word if they focused on this aspect rather than its physical appearance.
What is meaning?
Encoding specificity is typically stronger in recall tasks compared to this type of memory task, which asks participants to judge whether they’ve seen an item before.
What is recognition?
This form of amnesia results in the inability to form new memories following brain damage, as seen in the famous case of patient H.M.
What is anterograde amnesia?
The term for vivid, detailed memories of surprising and emotionally significant events, though research suggests they are not always accurate.
What is a flashbulb memory?
Elizabeth Loftus and her colleagues conducted a classic experiment in which participants misremembered whether a car stopped at this type of sign.
What is a stop sign?
This cognitive effect suggests that people remember information better when they relate it to themselves, as demonstrated in studies by Rogers et al. (1977).
What is the self-reference effect?
Smelling a flower and suddenly remembering a childhood scene in a grandparent’s garden is an example of this memory effect.
What is encoding specificity?
In a well-known story by Daniel Schacter, a woman suffering from amnesia is able to recall her mother’s phone number despite not remembering who she is. This demonstrates the difference between these two types of memory.
What are implicit memory and explicit memory?
This cognitive framework, based on past experiences, influences how we remember events and can lead to a consistency bias in autobiographical memory.
What is a schema?
This type of interference happens when newly learned information disrupts the recall of older memories
What is retroactive interference?
A 1999 study by Foley et al. found that participants who were asked to visualize objects often "cheated" by inserting themselves into the image, inadvertently using this type of processing instead.
What is self-reference processing?
Contrary to the original levels-of-processing approach, shallow processing can sometimes be more effective than deep processing when retrieval is based on this type of information.
What is superficial information (such as rhyming)?
The level-of-processing effect shows that deep encoding improves recall in explicit memory tests, but may have no effect or even a negative effect on implicit memory tasks. This phenomenon is known as this term, which describes different effects on different tests.
What is dissociation?
The research of Elizabeth Loftus has demonstrated that this type of testimony is often unreliable due to memory distortions and suggestibility.
What is eyewitness testimony?
Eyewitnesses are more likely to make errors if the crime occurred under this kind of intense emotional condition.
What is stress?