Fertilisation and the stages of prenatal development
This process marks the beginning of pregnancy.
Fertilisation/conception
Define risk factor and protective factor.
A risk factor is something that increases the likelihood of developing disease or injury. A protective factor something that enhances the likelihood of a positive health and wellbeing outcome and lessens the likelihood of negative health and wellbeing outcomes from exposure to risk.
Define object permanence.
An awareness that objects continue to exist even when they are out of sight.
Indentify the timeframe of childhood.
Early childhood lasts from the second birthday until six years of age, typically the preschool years.
Name the prenatal stage that runs from fertilisation to implantation (0–2 weeks) and identify one defining event of this stage.
The germinal stage.
eg: fertilisation, cell division and implantation
Describe three reasons why antenatal care functions as a protective factor during prenatal development.
Antenatal care is important to:
• monitor the health and wellbeing of the mother and baby
• provide health education and advice to the mother
• promote protective factors
• identify any risk factors for the mother and baby
• provide medical interventions if necessary.
Arrange these milestones in the most likely developmental order: run, lift head, walk, crawl, stand, roll
Lift head → roll → crawl → stand → walk → run.
Identify a typical language feature in early childhood and a vocabulary expectation by the end of childhood.
Rapid language growth with new words used quickly is typical. By the end of this stage, children know roughly 1,500–2,500 words.
State one hallmark characteristic for each: Embryonic stage (3–8 weeks) and Foetal stage (9–38 weeks).
Embryonic: cell differentiation/organogenesis; major organs and systems begin to form (e.g., neural tube, heart). p439
Foetal: growth and maturation of organs and systems; placenta fully functional by ~14 weeks. p441
Identify one protective nutrient and one risky food or substance during pregnancy. For each, describe how it influences prenatal development.
Protective: Folate supports healthy neural tube formation and prevents neural tube defects.
Risky: Listeria-infected foods (e.g., soft cheese, deli meats) increase the risk of miscarriage or stillbirth.
Describe three typical characteristics of physical development in infancy.
Rapid growth in size and body proportions: Infants show swift increases in length/height, weight, and head circumference, with the head-to-body proportion gradually becoming less top-heavy across the first two years.
Progression of motor milestones: Gross-motor control follows a cephalocaudal and proximodistal pattern—e.g., gaining head and trunk control, then rolling, sitting, crawling, standing and walking—while fine-motor skills progress from whole-hand (palmar) grasping to a more precise pincer grasp for picking up small objects.
Maturation of body systems: The skeleton continues ossification (bones harden and strengthen) and primary (deciduous) teeth begin to erupt, supporting chewing and nutrition—both changes underpinning increased mobility, feeding independence, and overall physical functioning.
Explain how kindergarten promotes social development during early childhood.
Kindergarten promotes social development by giving children daily, structured opportunities to interact with peers beyond the family, where they practise sharing, taking turns, and cooperating within group routines (e.g., circle time, small-group play). These settings help children become comfortable spending short periods away from parents, fostering independence and attempts at self-care (dressing, washing) while learning culturally acceptable behaviours such as listening to adults and not hitting others. Make-believe and role play further support learning of social roles and expectations. Kindergarten also strengthens communication skills, conflict resolution, and cooperation through guided social play, which research in the text links to gains in language, self-control, and appropriate behaviour.
Explain why the embryonic stage is the most critical for development and the impact of teratogens during this stage.
Because major organs and systems are formed during this time, the embryo is very sensitive to environmental influences. For this reason, the embryonic stage is known as a critical period in development. For coordinated body systems to develop, the specialised tissues that are forming require specific connections from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and outer parts of the developing embryo to occur. Teratogens such as tobacco, alcohol and medication are particularly influential during this stage of development. They are thought to interfere with the formation of these connections.
Explain how maternal smoking during pregnancy can act as a risk factor for prenatal development. Identify and describe two ways it can negatively affect the growth or development of the foetus.
Maternal smoking during pregnancy is a major risk factor for prenatal development because it restricts the supply of oxygen and nutrients to the foetus, which can interfere with normal growth. One consequence is low birthweight, which increases the risk of complications at birth and poor physical development in infancy. Smoking can also lead to impaired lung development, especially during the foetal stage, increasing the likelihood of breathing difficulties or respiratory illness after birth. These impacts can reduce the child’s chances of optimal development in early life and may have lasting effects on their health.
Describe separation anxiety in late infancy, including the typical age range and common behaviours.
Separation anxiety is the infant’s distress when the primary caregiver leaves (e.g., crying, clinging, protesting); it emerges and peaks around 9–18 months and usually eases by about age 2.
Discuss how socioeconomic status (SES) affects children’s development.
Socioeconomic status (SES) influences development across physical, intellectual, emotional, and social domains by shaping access to resources and stability at home. Children from higher SES families often have better access to nutritious food, healthcare, and safe play spaces, supporting physical health and growth. In contrast, lower SES can lead to food insecurity or limited medical care, increasing the risk of poor health outcomes.
For intellectual development, higher SES often means more exposure to books, conversation, and early learning, helping with language, memory, and problem-solving. Children in low-SES environments may miss out on these experiences, affecting school readiness. Emotional and social development can also be impacted since financial stress may reduce consistent caregiving, making it harder for children to form secure attachments or manage emotions. These differences can affect development early and continue across generations if unaddressed.
Give two reasons why understanding fertilisation and prenatal development is important for individual, family, or population health outcomes.
Understanding fertilisation helps individuals recognise early signs of pregnancy and seek antenatal care early, which supports better outcomes across all prenatal stages.
Knowledge of prenatal development stages helps families and health professionals support optimal growth and maturation (e.g., nutrition, avoidance of harmful exposures), improving the baby’s health at birth and into later life.
Discuss how maternal alcohol use during pregnancy affects foetal development and outline the implications for health and wellbeing after birth.
Alcohol consumed during pregnancy crosses the placenta, directly exposing the baby and contributing to foetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD) by damaging the developing nervous system and restricting blood supply via narrowed placental and umbilical vessels. This can lead to undernourishment, low birthweight, preterm birth, microcephaly, and characteristic craniofacial changes. Early exposure in the embryonic stage (weeks 3–8) is most likely to cause major structural defects, while later exposure in the foetal stage more often results in functional problems or minor structural changes as organs mature.
Identify and explain two parent actions that can optimise development in infancy, outlining how each action supports a specific developmental domain (physical, intellectual, emotional or social).
Breastfeeding optimises physical development by protecting infants against infection and reducing later cardiometabolic risk factors, including high blood pressure, elevated cholesterol, obesity, and type 1 and type 2 diabetes, thereby supporting healthier growth trajectories. It also contributes to intellectual development, supplying the nutritional conditions that underpin early brain growth and cognitive gains.
Providing consistent and empathetic care in the first months fosters a secure attachment, which establishes a foundation of safety, security, and effective coping. Attachments formed in infancy support emotional and social development across the lifespan, influencing later relationship quality, the capacity to maintain emotional balance, enjoyment of one’s own and others’ company, and resilience.
A child is born into a low-SES family where the mother received limited antenatal care and smoked during pregnancy.
Discuss how these early conditions may affect the child’s physical or intellectual development across the prenatal, infancy, and early childhood stages, and identify one way a caregiver could support more positive outcomes in early childhood.
A mother who smoked and had limited antenatal care during pregnancy may give birth to a baby with low birthweight or delayed lung and brain development, affecting both physical and intellectual outcomes. In infancy, these risks can lead to slower growth, more illness, and fewer early learning opportunities, especially in a low-SES household where nutrition and stimulation may be limited. In early childhood, this can result in poorer language development, reduced school readiness, and ongoing health issues.
To support better outcomes, a caregiver could create consistent talk–read–play routines and seek support from community early learning services. These actions help build the child’s cognitive, emotional, and social skills, even in the context of disadvantage.