Big Pharma
These drugs prevent the conversion of angiotensin I to angiotensin II, resulting in vasodilation and reduced blood pressure.
ACE inhibitors
This metabolic pathway occurs in the cytoplasm and converts one molecule of glucose into two molecules of pyruvate, producing a net gain of 2 ATP.
glycolysis
Identify two points in the Krebs cycle where carbon dioxide (CO₂) is released and explain why this is significant for cellular metabolism.
Two molecules of this three-carbon compound are produced at the end of glycolysis.
Pyruvate
The main role of glycogen in skeletal muscle is to provide this molecule for energy during contraction.
ATP
These agents lower blood pressure by reducing cardiac output and heart rate through β₁-adrenergic blockade.
beta blockers
The process by which glucose molecules are added to a growing glycogen chain using UDP-glucose as the activated sugar donor.
glycogenesis
Explain why the cycle is essential for cellular respiration and where it takes place within the cell.
The Krebs cycle is essential because it generates high-energy molecules (NADH and FADH₂) that fuel the electron transport chain, where most of the ATP in cellular respiration is produced.
This enzyme catalyzes the rate-limiting step of glycolysis, converting fructose-6-phosphate to fructose-1,6-bisphosphate.
phosphofructokinase-1 (PFK-1)
Unlike the liver, muscle cells lack this enzyme, preventing them from releasing free glucose into the bloodstream.
glucose-6-phosphatase
By inhibiting this enzyme complex, ACE inhibitors reduce vasoconstriction and sodium/water reabsorption, lowering blood pressure.
renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system
This mobile electron carrier transfers electrons from Complex III to Complex IV.
cytochrome c
Describe the key steps of the Krebs cycle, including the main molecules involved and the energy-carrying products generated in each turn of the cycle.
Formation of Citrate: The cycle begins with acetyl-CoA (derived from pyruvate) combining with oxaloacetate to form citrate, a six-carbon molecule.
Isomerization of Citrate to Isocitrate: Citrate is converted into its isomer, isocitrate.
Oxidation and Decarboxylation of Isocitrate: Isocitrate is oxidized to α-ketoglutarate, releasing one molecule of CO₂ and producing one NADH.
Formation of Succinyl-CoA: α-Ketoglutarate undergoes another decarboxylation, releasing CO₂ and forming succinyl-CoA. This step generates another molecule of NADH.
Conversion of Succinyl-CoA to Succinate: Succinyl-CoA is converted to succinate, generating one GTP (or ATP, depending on the cell type).
Oxidation of Succinate to Fumarate: Succinate is oxidized to fumarate, producing one molecule of FADH₂.
Conversion of Fumarate to Malate: Fumarate is converted to malate by the addition of a water molecule.
Oxidation of Malate to Oxaloacetate: Malate is oxidized to regenerate oxaloacetate, producing another NADH and allowing the cycle to continue.
The main function of glycogen in the liver is to maintain this physiological parameter between meals.
blood glucose level
Explain the difference between Angiotensinogen and Kininogen related to blood pressure?
Effect on Blood Pressure: Angiotensinogen, through the actions of angiotensin II, helps raise blood pressure.
Effect on Blood Pressure: Kininogen, through bradykinin, promotes blood pressure reduction.
These drugs reduce peripheral vascular resistance by blocking calcium influx into smooth muscle cells.
calcium channel blockers
These drugs act on α₁-adrenergic receptors to cause vasodilation and decreased venous tone.
alpha-adrenergic antagonists
During one turn of the Krebs Cycle, this high-energy electron carrier is produced three times and donates electrons to the electron transport chain.
NADH
This hormone stimulates glycogen breakdown in the liver during fasting or stress.
glucagon (or epinephrine)
With the site of action vasodilators explain how contractility relates to relaxation? What two drugs will effect the contractility?
Ca2+ -> Ca2+-CaM -> activates MLCK -> MLC ->to MLC-P -> Contractility
MLC-P -> MLC with the help of Phosphatase to promote relaxation.
ACE Inhibitors and Ca2+ channel blockers.
These calcium-channel blockers primarily target vascular smooth muscle rather than cardiac tissue, causing potent arterial dilation.
dihydropyridines
These three physiological determinants collectively regulate blood pressure and are often drug targets.
cardiac output, vascular resistance, and blood volume
This enzyme catalyzes the conversion of succinyl-CoA to succinate, generating GTP (or ATP) in the process.
succinyl-CoA synthetase
This enzyme removes glucose residues from the non-reducing ends of glycogen during glycogenolysis.
glycogen phosphorylase
When the electron transport chain is disrupted what can malfunction?
The H+ is then malfunction which causes the protonation and deprotonation of the blood to disfunction.