Google Effect
What term describes the tendency to forget information that is readily available online?
Digital amnesia
Who first proposed the flashbulb memory theory and in what year?
Brown & Kulik, 1977.
Which cognitive ability did Blacker et al. (2014) find improved after playing action video games?
Visual working memory (VWM).
What type of research design was used in Schaefer et al. (2011)?
Quasi-experiment — pre-existing differences in media exposure.
Define “transactive memory” and give one example involving technology.
A system where people rely on others or external sources for memory storage — e.g., relying on Google to store factual knowledge.
In Sparrow et al. (2011), which condition had the highest recall accuracy, and why?
ondition 4 — participants were told the computer would not save the information and were not told to remember it; they recalled ~50% more accurately due to increased encoding effo
In Schaefer et al. (2011), what was the key variable that distinguished the immediate exposure group from the delayed exposure group?
Time between hearing the news of 9/11 and seeing television images (minutes vs. hours later).
Name one action video game used in Blacker et al.’s experiment.
Call of Duty: Modern Warfare / Call of Duty: Black Ops (any correct).
Was Sparrow et al. (2011) an experimental, correlational, or qualitative study?
Experimental study (true experiment).
What is the “special-mechanism hypothesis” in flashbulb memory theory?
A unique biological process triggered by highly surprising/emotional events creates vivid, permanent “snapshot” memories.
Explain how transactive memory relates to the Google effect.
Transactive memory is a shared memory system where individuals rely on external sources (people or technology) to store information; with the Google effect, we store where to find information rather than the information itself.
What conclusion did Schaefer et al. (2011) draw about the effect of immediate image exposure on FBM quality?
Immediate exposure led to more vivid, detailed, and higher-quality FBMs compared to delayed exposure.
Explain how selective attention plays a role in improving VWM according to Blacker et al.
Action games require constant monitoring and filtering of multiple stimuli, enhancing selective attention, which improves VWM capacity.
Identify one strength of using an experiment (e.g., Sparrow et al., 2011) to study technology’s effects on cognition.
Ability to control variables and establish cause-and-effect relationships.
Explain the relationship between surprise, personal relevance, and flashbulb memory formation.
High surprise and strong personal relevance increase emotional intensity → higher likelihood of FBM formation.
State one methodological strength and one limitation of Sparrow et al.’s (2011) experiment.
Strength: True experiment with controlled conditions → can establish cause-and-effect.
Limitation: Low ecological validity — recalling trivia facts is unlike real-life memory tasks.
Explain how “reception context” can influence FBM formation.
Reception context — how, where, and from whom we hear about an event — affects emotional intensity and detail recall, influencing whether a FBM forms.
Identify one control measure used in Blacker et al. (2014) and why it was important.
Pre- and post-tests of VWM for both groups — ensured improvements were due to gaming, not pre-existing differences.
Identify one weakness of using lab-based memory tasks to study the Google effect.
Low ecological validity — trivia recall may not reflect everyday memory use.
Describe one real-world scenario where virtual reality exposure therapy could be used instead of in-person exposure.
Treating fear of flying using VR to simulate airplane sights, sounds, and smells in a therapist’s office.
Discuss one real-world implication of digital amnesia in educational settings.
Over-reliance on online sources may reduce students’ long-term retention, requiring a shift in teaching toward critical thinking, application, and problem-solving instead of rote memorization.
Evaluate Schaefer et al.’s study in terms of cultural differences in FBM recall.
FBM content and vividness may differ across cultures — individualistic cultures emphasize personal detail, collectivistic cultures emphasize community impact — limiting generalizability.
Evaluate the generalizability of Blacker et al.’s findings, considering gender and sample size.
Only male college students (n=34) — gender bias and small, unrepresentative sample limit external validity.
Discuss one reason why ecological validity may be low in technology-and-cognition studies.
Artificial settings and simplified tasks may not represent real-world technology use, limiting generalizability.
Evaluate the potential application of Blacker et al.’s findings in educational or therapeutic settings.
Action video games could be used in cognitive training to improve VWM in students or in rehabilitation for attention deficits — but must balance benefits with concerns about violent content.