fill in the blank
A BLANK is a characteristic that differs across people, cases, or situations
what is a independent variable
proposed influence or predictor
Treatment and outcome are parallel terms often used in causal research
true
When are causal diagrams especially useful?
When a theory has several connected claims
what predicts a direction for a relationship or difference
A hypothesis (H)
BLANK is the the proposed
outcome
dependent variable
what is Selection
people who receive a treatment may already differ from people who do not
arrow represents A proposed cause → its proposed effect. in a causal diagram?
true
A causal relationship will often produce what
association,
examples of selection
Customers
who see many targeted ads may already be interested in the product
A BLANK is a statistical relationship between variables
correlation
what is Missing cases
evidence may include only cases that survived or remained observable
the first requirement for causation is The cause and effect must be statistically related
false
The first requirement for causation is The cause must occur before the effect
The unobserved hypothetical result is the
counterfactual
What is observational causal inference?
Researchers observe treatments/outcomes without assigning treatment.
BLANK is a third variable influences both variables
Confounding
what is Reverse causality:
the proposed outcome actually causes the proposed cause.
true or false A random experiment occurs when an outside process assigns exposure in a way that is plausibly
random
false its natural experiment
what is the difference between the observed outcome and the counterfactual outcome
causal effect
example of a common source of observational data?
surveys
BLANK implicitly compares what happened with what would have happened under a different condition
causal claim
The possible results under different conditions are what
potential outcomes
true or false In an casual inference, researchers assign people or cases to different conditions and compare their
outcomes
false in a experiment researchers assign people or cases to different conditions and compare their
outcomes
what gives each participant a chance of receiving each condition
Random assignment
Why does randomization matter?
It creates similar groups, spreads differences, and makes treatment effects more credible.