Gender
This type of identity overlaps or runs parallel to other identity-based cleavages
Reinforcing Cleavages
The success of this is dependent on these factors: political opportunity structure, resource mobilization, framing.
social movement
China under the Chinese Communist Party and the USSR under the Communist Party of the Soviet Union are examples of this regime type:
single-party regimes
A regime transition in which an authoritarian regime is replaced by a democratic one.
Democratization
group of people who share an understanding of a common heritage based on religion, language, territory, or family ties.
ethnicity
This is a policy to address underrepresentation of marginalized groups that political parties decide to implement on their own.
voluntary party quota
This is where, for example, citizens in cities gain access to subsidized food and improved infrastructure and public services, but farmers sell their food to the government at below market rate.
urban bias
a regime in which the government shapes the interests and identities of its citizens by articulating a coherent ideology, coercively mobilizes support for the regime, and imposes tight restrictions on social and political pluralism
totalitarianism
A widespread democratization effort in the Middle East.
The Arab Spring
This is how people identify and categorize themselves and others, in terms of broad categories such as ethnicity, race, religion, language, region, and class.
Cultural Identity
Arguments to improve women’s status in developing countries have mostly focused on this economic idea.
efficiency
This is the contingent exchange of material benefits for political support
Political clientelism
This is the subset of the population that chooses or removes the leader or leaders
selectorate
This process topples the incumbent autocrat through popular protests and social movements.
Bottom Up Protest Driven Democratization
This theory for the politicization of identity assumes that identities are malleable and emphasizes how changes in the social context and competition for power shape the politicization of identity.
Constructivism
This term describes a gap in attitudes: women are more liberal than men and more likely to support redistributive public policies.
“modern gender gap”
This is a view of the world that sees an antagonistic divide between an authentic “people” and a venal elite or political establishment.
populism
This is an incremental process achieved through: pressure on the media, criminalization of opposition, politicization of state agencies, subtle legal reforms and changing of informal norms:
democratic backsliding
Sometimes called a “palliative” for real democratization.
Political Liberalization
These actors play a significant role in assisting in ethnic groups’ mobilization
Ethnic entrepreneurs
According to Mounira Charrad, Tunisia adopted liberal family law reforms because of 1) the cohesion of political elites, and 2) elites’ relationship with this group.
traditional tribal kinship groups / traditional religious groups
This group system consists of uncoordinated and competitive interest groups, there is no official role recognized by the state
pluralist interest group system
This process provides a veneer of legitimacy to autocratic regimes, helps to co-opt elites, provides information on strongholds of support and opposition, divide the opposition, and to reduce risk of violent removal:
autocratic elections
Some examples of these are: International dynamics, economic crisis & reform, and diffusion patterns.
Underlying causes of third wave democratization
Social changes brought about by this process enhance cultural identity.
Modernization