Probability Rules
This type of event describes outcomes that have no common elements and therefore cannot happen at the same time
Mutually Exclusive Events
The complete set of all possible outcomes in a statistical experiment, often denoted by S
Sample Space
The critical statistical principle summarized as: Correlation does NOT imply this
causation
This principle involves treating all groups similarly except for the factor being tested, aiming to reduce variability from lurking variables
control
In statistical terms, this refers to a result that heavily favors an outcome in a manner that is unfair or subjective, often coming from non-random sampling methods
For any two events A and B, this general rule is calculated as P(A)+P(B)−P(A and B)
General Addition Rule
The mean calculated from a sample, which is typically denoted by the notation xˉ (x bar)
sample mean
If r=−0.90, the value 0.81 represents what?
coefficient of determination (r^2)
This principle ensures multiple individuals are placed in each treatment level to estimate the variability of responses and increase the reliability of results
replication
The type of bias introduced when conducting a survey using only landline telephone numbers from a phonebook, as it systematically excludes segments of the population
undercoverage bias
What is the probability of A given A?
In regression, this variable is plotted on the y-axis, is what you hope to predict, and is also called the dependent variable
response variable
Defined as the vertical distance from an observed data point (y) to the regression line (y^), representing the prediction error
The simplest experimental layout, suitable for homogeneous units, where treatments are assigned to individuals entirely at random
Completely Randomized Design (CRD)
This type of bias occurs when individuals selected for a sample cannot or do not provide responses, meaning the views of nonrespondents are missed
nonresponse bias
To correctly apply the Total Probability Rule, the preceding conditions (B events) should _______ the sample space?
In an experiment, these are the specific conditions applied to subjects, representing a combination of specific levels from all factors
treatments
The type of variable that explains the spurious positive association between ice cream sales and shark attacks
lurking variable
This principle is used when experimental units are heterogeneous, requiring the grouping of individuals by a common characteristic before randomization
Blocking
A non-random sampling technique where subjects are selected based on the researcher's specialized knowledge or judgment, useful when targeting experts
purposive sampling/judgmental sampling
DOUBLE OR NOTHING
If P(A) is .3, P(B) is .8, and P(B or A) is .7, what is P(A given B)?
.5, 50%, 1/2
This numerical measure describes the entire population and is usually unknown, requiring estimation using a sample measure
parameter
The preferred appearance of a residual plot, showing points scattered randomly around this central value, which validates the appropriateness of a linear model
scattered randomly and evenly around the x-axis
The primary purpose of this design principle is to equalize the effects of unknown or uncontrollable sources of variation across treatments
randomization
The process of obtaining samples from a population where every individual is given an equal chance of selection, eliminating human bias and ensuring a representative sample
random sampling