Tripartite Theory
What three conditions make up the tripartite definition of knowledge?
Justification
Truth
Belief
What problem do the original Gettier cases aim to highlight?
That Justified True Belief is not sufficient for knowledge.
What does infallibilism claim about the possibility of being wrong if you “know” something?
If you know something, it is impossible for you to be mistaken.
According to reliabilism, what makes a belief count as knowledge?
It is produced by a reliable cognitive process that generally leads to truth.
What does virtue epistemology focus on instead of justification?
The intellectual character or virtues of the believer.
Why is truth a necessary component for knowledge?
It ensures that we are able to maintain a cognitive contact with reality.
In Gettier’s “Smith and Jones” case, what justified but true belief does Smith hold?
Smith believes “The man who will get the job has ten coins in his pocket” — justified but based on a false premise about Jones.
According to infallibilists, what level of certainty is required for genuine knowledge?
Absolute or conclusive certainty — beliefs that could not be false under any circumstance.
What do reliabilists mean by a “reliable cognitive process”?
A mental process (e.g. perception, memory, reasoning) that usually produces true beliefs.
According to Ernest Sosa, what are the three A’s in his AAA model?
Accuracy, Adroitness, and Aptness.
Why does “true belief” alone not count as knowledge?
Because someone can believe something true by accident or luck, without justification.
Why does Gettier think justified true belief is not sufficient for knowledge?
Because someone can have a belief that is justified and true by coincidence or luck, not through genuine knowledge.
Why does infallibilism rule out most ordinary perceptual knowledge (e.g. “I know there’s a table”)?
Because perception could, in theory, be mistaken (e.g. hallucination or dream), so it isn’t infallible.
Give one example of a reliable process and one of an unreliable process.
Reliable: normal vision in daylight.
Unreliable: guessing or wishful thinking.
What does “aptness” mean in Sosa’s model of knowledge?
A belief is apt when it is true because of the knower’s intellectual virtue or skill.
Give one example where someone might have a justified true belief that is not knowledge.
You believe the clock shows the correct time because it usually does, but it stopped 12
How might a philosopher try to solve the Gettier problem without rejecting JTB?
By adding a fourth condition (JTB + X), such as “no false lemmas” or “reliable justification.”
How does infallibilism attempt to solve the Gettier problem?
By saying only beliefs that are incapable of being false count as knowledge — excluding “lucky” true beliefs.
Why might reliabilism still fail to avoid certain Gettier-style problems?
Because a reliable process can still produce a true belief by luck in some specific cases (e.g. fake barn example).
How does virtue epistemology aim to explain why lucky true beliefs are not knowledge?
Because a belief formed by luck isn’t apt — it’s not true due to the agent’s intellectual ability.
What is the main criticism of infallibilism concerning its practicality or usefulness?
It makes knowledge too demanding — if only infallible beliefs count, we “know” very little or nothing at all.
How does reliabilism differ from internalist theories of justification?
Reliabilism is externalist — justification depends on the process’s reliability, not the believer’s awareness of it.
How does Sosa respond to the 'Fake Barn' Gettier Case?
By stating that the subject of the case has animal knowledge (unable to reflect) but does not have human/reflective knowledge.