Circulatory, Digestion, Muscular, Skeletal
Nervous System
Innate Immunity
Adaptive Immunity
Endocrine System
100
Partial pressure of oxygen in the blood is relatively _______ and binding of oxygen to hemoglobin is relatively ________ when organisms are highly active.
Low; low
Remember: things want to flow from high pressure to low pressure!
Instead of hemoglobin/iron, what do arthropods use?
100
List the 5 general steps of a typical reflex pathway.
1) Receptor
2) Sensory Nerve Fiber
3) Interneuron
4) Motor Nerve Fiber
5) Skeletal Muscle
100
Name 2 characteristics of innate immunity.
Genetically-programmed
Nonspecific
First line of defense (and 2nd line)
Physical barriers, toxic molecules, general phagocytic cells
Relatively quick response (minutes-hours)
100
What are the 4 key features of adaptive immunity?
Specificity to Pathogen
Distinguishing self from nonself
Diversity of antibodies
Immunological Memory
100
How do hormones from the hypothalamus reach the anterior pituitary gland? What about the posterior pituitary gland?
Hypothalamus hormones reach anterior pituitary gland through HYPOPHYSEAL PORTAL SYSTEM.
Hypothalamus hormones reach posterior pituitary gland through NEUROSECRETORY CELLS (stored in vesicles until release).
200
What causes the power stroke during the cross-bridge cycle?
ADP + P released from myosin head
200
Which of the following correctly characterizes graded potentials? (MULTIPLE SELECT)
a) Self-propagating
b) Localized
c) All-or nothing
d) Produced by voltage-gated channels
e) Spread across receptive regions of the neuron
B & E
What stimulates vesicles containing neurotransmitters to release the neurotransmitters from an axon terminal?
Calcium
200
When histamine is released from a mast cell, what will be the next event in the inflammatory response?
a) Histamine will target the phagocytes and stimulate apoptosis.
b) Histamine will lyse the bacteria in the wound.
c) Histamine will bind to bacterial antigens.
d) Histamine will cause the blood vessel in the area to dilate and become leaky.
e) Histamine will stimulate Tc cells.
d) Histamine will cause the blood vessel in the area to dilate and become leaky.
200
These are sites on the antigen that the immune system recognizes. This is the part of an antigen molecule to which an antibody’s variable region attaches itself.
Antigenic determinants/epitopes
vs
Antibody’s variable region = antigen binding site = paratope
200
What hormone is important in determining developmental stages in insects?
Juvenile hormone (JH)
300
What is a major implication of the mouse-to elephant curve?
a) Medicinal dosing has a linear relationship with body mass
b) Food supply demands for coexisting animals
c) Smaller animals require more oxygen
d) Smaller animals require more food per gram
e) A mouse has a higher BMR than humans per gram of body weight
b, d, e
300
Postganglionic neurons of nerves transmitting information to cardiac muscle releases this neurotransmitter onto target tissues during sympathetic stimulation.
Norepinephrine
What neurotransmitter is released from postganglionic neurons during parasympathetic activity?
Can sympathetic and parasympathetic system be active at the same time?
300
What do we call the molecular structures that are typically found on the surface of pathogens, such as flagellin, lipopolysaccharides, and fungal chitin, and can bind to pattern recognition receptors?
PAMPs = Pathogen-associated molecular patterns
The binding of PRRs (ex: TLRs) to PAMPs triggers what?
300
What major process(es) accounts for the vast diversity of antibody and receptor antigen-binding regions? (MULTIPLE SELECT)
a) Germ line mutation
b) Somatic recombination
c) T cell “testing” in the thymus
d) RNA alternative splicing
b and d: Somatic recombination and RNA alternative splicing
Why is diversity of antibodies important?
Allows the immune system to recognize and fight a wide range of pathogens and foreign substances
300
Which cells of the thyroid gland are responsible for releasing/secreting TH?
Follicular cells
What condition is characterized by undersecretion of TH? How is fixed/prevented?
400
Which of the following is incorrect?
a) Osteoblasts - deposits new bone matrix
b) Osteoclasts - release calcium into ECF
c) Osteocytes - surrounded by bone matrix
d) Osteoclasts - dissolve bone matrix
e) Osteoblasts - withdraws calcium from bone bank
f) Osteoclasts - responsible for reabsorption of bone
e) Osteoblasts - withdraws calcium from bone bank
Osteoblasts add to / “deposit” calcium into bone bank.
Follow-up: A bear cub consumes a lot of its mother’s calcium-rich milk. Which are activated the most?
Osteocytes, osteoclasts, osteons, Haversian cells, osteoblasts
400
Where are voltage-gated K+ channels contributing the most to changing membrane potential?
a) A→B
b) B→C
c) C→D
d) D→E
e) C
b) C→D
What about where VG Na+ channels contribute the most change to the membrane potential?
400
There are three things that result from complement system activation. Name all three.
Binding to pathogen surface so it is easier to recognize and be killed by phagocytes; labels pathogens for destruction
Activates inflammation; attracts phagocytes to infection site
Creates pores in a pathogenic cell and kills it
400
What characterizes a secondary immune response?
a. Antibody and T cell production increased
b. Memory cells create a “memory” of antigen/attack
c. Slow response
d. What occurs when a vaccination is first administered
e. Infection from a previously-encountered pathogen
e. Infection from a previously-encountered pathogen
Vaccines are what type of immunity? What is the difference between active and passive immunity?
400
You are trying to identifying a mystery hormone. After running some tests, you find out that the hormone does not target an endocrine gland. Which of the following is the best candidate for this mystery hormone?
a) FSH
b) ACTH
c) LH
d) TSH
e) GH
e) GH
What kind of hormones are all of the other hormones?
500
Wrestlers grapple with each other for relatively short but intense periods of time, relying on powerful skeletal muscles in their arms and legs to pin their opponents. What physiological changes do you expect to see during a wrestling match?
a) Activation of the parasympathetic system
b) A carefully maintained, constant stroke volume
C) A decrease in norepinephrine secretion
d) An increase in blood flow to the gut
e) Relaxation of arterioles serving capillaries in the arms and legs
e) Relaxation of arterioles serving capillaries in the arms and legs
500
In a visual system, light is absorbed by rhodopsin in rod, which causes what?
a) a change of shape in bipolar neurons
b) depolarization of the rhodopsin molecule
c) a change in shape of the opsin protein.
d) an increase in the number of rod cells.
c. a change in shape of the opsin protein.
What are the two photoreceptors? Where are they located?
500
Interferons and pyrogens are examples of signaling molecules in the immune system called what?
What do interferons do? What do pyrogens do?
Interferons and pyrogens are examples of CYTOKINES.
Interferons - increases resistance of neighbor cells to infection, especially viruses.
Pyrogens - signals the brain to increase body temp when you’re sick (fever). Importance of fever?
Helps immune system work faster
Accelerates recruitment and production of lymphocytes
Speeds up metabolism for tissue repair
Increases phagocytosis
Makes it harder for heat-sensitive bacteria/viruses to survive
500
What’s the key difference between B-cell receptors and T-cell receptors?
T-cell receptors
can only bind to antigens bound to MHC proteins on APCs
cannot recognize free antigens
need antigen presentation
Classes correspond to which T cells?
Vs
B-cell receptors (aka antibodies aka immunoglobulins)
can recognize and bind to free antigens
does not need to utilize MHC proteins for antigen presentation
500
Scientists have discovered a new hormone. It has been found to travel to target cells, enter the cells from diffusion through the membrane, and stimulate the production of protein products. What is likely the class of this hormone?
Steroid - explain?
The only class that is hydrophobic
→ can therefore diffuse through the phospholipid bilayer of a cell membrane (doesn’t need second messenger)
→ can bind to INTRAcellular receptors on nucleus
→ gene activation, but hormone response is lagged due to transcription and translation