Authors
Florentine political thinker who wrote The Prince, analyzing how rulers could acquire and maintain political power.
Who is Machiavelli
French peasant who claimed divine guidance and helped inspire French forces during the Hundred Years' War; later executed by the English.
Who is Joan of Arc?
Payments or other acts that the Catholic Church taught could reduce punishment for sins; their sale became a major criticism of the Church.
What are Indulgences
Italian Renaissance scholar often called the "Father of Humanism"; he studied classical Greek and Roman texts and emphasized human achievement.
Who is Petrach?
Intellectual movement emphasizing the study of classical Greek and Roman literature, human potential, and individual achievement.
What is Humanism?
Italian Renaissance author of The Book of the Courtier, which described the ideal Renaissance courtier.
Who is Castiglione?
Title given to Henry VIII by the pope for defending Catholic teachings; Henry later kept the title after breaking with Rome.
What is Defender of the Faith
Agreement in the Holy Roman Empire allowing each prince to choose Catholicism or Lutheranism for his territory.
What is the Peace of Augsburg (1555)
High Renaissance artist known for balanced compositions, classical influence, and works such as The School of Athens.
Who is Raphael?
English religious reformer who criticized Church wealth and authority and promoted translating the Bible into English; influenced later reformers.
Who is John Wycliffe?
Protestant reformer who developed Calvinism, emphasizing predestination and a disciplined Christian community in Geneva.
Who is John Calvin
Spanish fleet sent against England in 1588; its defeat helped England maintain Protestantism and challenged Spanish naval power.
What is the Spanish Armada?
The 1521 meeting where Luther was ordered to recant his teachings. He refused and was declared an outlaw by the Holy Roman Emperor.
What is the Diet of Worms?
Florentine Renaissance painter known for works such as The Birth of Venus and Primavera.
Who is Botticelli?
Renaissance belief that educated citizens should actively participate in government and serve their communities.
What is Civic Humanism?
Author of Medieval Christian tradition and literature focused on how to prepare for and experience a "good death."
Who is Ars Moriendi?
Late 15th-century European rulers who strengthened central governments by expanding taxation, bureaucracy, armies, and royal authority.
What are the New Monarchs?
list of arguments criticizing the sale of indulgences and certain Church practices; helped begin the Protestant Reformation.
What are 95 Theses?
Italian Renaissance sculptor known for realistic sculptures and his influential bronze David.
Who is Donatello?
Renaissance movement north of the Alps emphasizing Christian humanism, detailed art, and religious reform.
What is the Northern Renaissance?
Italian poet who wrote The Divine Comedy, combining Christian theology with classical and medieval ideas.
Who is Dante?
Devastating disease outbreak in the 14th century that killed a large portion of Europe's population and disrupted the economy and social order.
What is the Black Plague
A 1519 debate between Martin Luther and Catholic theologian Johann Eck in which Luther challenged Church authority and the pope.
What is the Leipzig Debate?
French Renaissance writer who defended women's abilities and criticized negative stereotypes about women.
Who is Christine de Piza?
Bohemian religious reformer who criticized Church corruption; executed for heresy in 1415 and later became an inspiration for reform movements.
Who is Jan Hus?